Photo-induced Cross-linking Of Unmodified Proteins Research Articles

Evaluation of Alpha-Synuclein and Tau Antiaggregation Activity of Urea and Thiourea-Based Small Molecules for Neurodegenerative Disease Therapeutics.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are multifactorial, chronic diseases involving neurodegeneration. According to recent studies, it is hypothesized that the intraneuronal and postsynaptic accumulation of misfolded proteins such as α-synuclein (α-syn) and tau, responsible for Lewy bodies (LB) and tangles, respectively, disrupts neuron functions. Considering the co-occurrence of α-syn and tau inclusions in the brains of patients afflicted with subtypes of dementia and LB disorders, the discovery and development of small molecules for the inhibition of α-syn and tau aggregation can be a potentially effective strategy to delay neurodegeneration. Urea is a chaotropic agent that alters protein solubilization and hydrophobic interactions and inhibits protein aggregation and precipitation. The presence of three hetero atoms (O/S and N) in proximity can coordinate with neutral, mono, or dianionic groups to form stable complexes in the biological system. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated urea and thiourea linkers with various substitutions on either side of the carbamide or thiocarbamide functionality to compare the aggregation inhibition of α-syn and tau. A thioflavin-T (ThT) fluorescence assay was used to evaluate the level of fibril formation and monitor the anti-aggregation effect of the different compounds. We opted for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) as a direct means to confirm the anti-fibrillar effect. The oligomer formation was monitored via the photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP). The anti-inclusion and anti-seeding activities of the best compounds were evaluated using M17D intracellular inclusion and biosensor cell-based assays, respectively. Disaggregation experiments were performed with amyloid plaques extracted from AD brains. The analogues with indole, benzothiazole, or N,N-dimethylphenyl on one side with halo-substituted aromatic moieties had shown less than 15% cutoff fluorescence obtained with the ThT assay. Our lead molecules 6T and 14T reduced α-syn oligomerization dose-dependently based on the PICUP assays but failed at inhibiting tau oligomer formation. The anti-inclusion effect of our lead compounds was confirmed using the M17D neuroblastoma cell model. Compounds 6T and 14T exhibited an anti-seeding effect on tau using biosensor cells. In contrast to the control, disaggregation experiments showed fewer Aβ plaques with our lead molecules (compounds 6T and 14T). Pharmacokinetics (PK) mice studies demonstrated that these two thiourea-based small molecules have the potential to cross the blood-brain barrier in rodents. Urea and thiourea linkers could be further improved for their PK parameters and studied for the anti-inclusion, anti-seeding, and disaggregation effects using transgenic mice models of neurodegenerative diseases.

1,4-Diurea- and 1,4-Dithiourea-Substituted Aromatic Derivatives Selectively Inhibit α-Synuclein Oligomer Formation In Vitro.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, affecting the elderly population worldwide. In PD, the misfolding of α-synuclein (α-syn) results in the formation of inclusions referred to as Lewy bodies (LB) in midbrain neurons of the substantia nigra and other specific brain localizations, which is associated with neurodegeneration. There are no approved strategies to reduce the formation of LB in the neurons of patients with PD. Our drug discovery program focuses on the synthesis of urea and thiourea compounds coupled with aminoindole moieties to abrogate α-syn aggregation and to slow down the progression of PD. We synthesized several urea and thiourea analogues with a central 1,4-phenyl diurea/thiourea linkage and evaluated their effectiveness in reducing α-syn aggregation with a special focus on the selective inhibition of oligomer formation among other proteins. We utilized biophysical methods such as thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence assays, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP), as well as M17D intracellular inclusion cell-based assays to evaluate the antiaggregation properties and cellular protection of our best compounds. Our results identified compound 1 as the best compound in reducing α-syn fibril formation via ThT assays. The antioligomer formation of compound 1 was subsequently superseded by compound 2. Both compounds selectively curtailed the oligomer formation of α-syn but not tau 4R isoforms (0N4R, 2N4R) or p-tau (isoform 1N4R). Compounds 1 and 2 failed to abrogate tau 0N3R fibril formation by ThT and atomic force microscopy. Compound 2 was best at reducing the formation of recombinant α-syn fibrils by TEM. In contrast to compound 2, compound 1 reduced the formation of α-syn inclusions in M17D neuroblastoma cells in a dose-dependent manner. Compound 1 may provide molecular scaffolds for the optimization of symmetric molecules for its α-syn antiaggregation activity with potential therapeutic applications and development of small molecules in PD.

Evaluation of N- and O-Linked Indole Triazines for a Dual Effect on α-Synuclein and Tau Aggregation.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder underlying dementia in the geriatric population. AD manifests by two pathological hallmarks: extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide-containing senile plaques and intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles comprised of aggregated hyperphosphorylated tau protein (p-tau). However, more than half of AD cases also display the presence of aggregated α-synuclein (α-syn)-containing Lewy bodies. Conversely, Lewy bodies disorders have been reported to have concomitant Aβ plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Our drug discovery program focuses on the synthesis of multitarget-directed ligands to abrogate aberrant α-syn, tau (2N4R), and p-tau (1N4R) aggregation and to slow the progression of AD and related dementias. To this end, we synthesized 11 compounds with a triazine-linker and evaluated their effectiveness in reducing α-syn, tau isoform 2N4R, and p-tau isoform 1N4R aggregation. We utilized biophysical methods such as thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence assays, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP), and M17D intracellular inclusion cell-based assays to evaluate the antiaggregation properties and cellular protection of our best compounds. We also performed disaggregation assays with isolated Aβ-plaques from human AD brains. Our results demonstrated that compound 10 was effective in reducing both oligomerization and fibril formation of α-syn and tau isoform 2N4R in a dose-dependent manner via ThT and PICUP assays. Compound 10 was also effective at reducing the formation of recombinant α-syn, tau 2N4R, and p-tau 1N4R fibrils by TEM. Compound 10 reduced the development of α-syn inclusions in M17D neuroblastoma cells and stopped the seeding of tau P301S using biosensor cells. Disaggregation experiments showed smaller Aβ-plaques and less paired helical filaments with compound 10. Compound 10 may provide molecular scaffolds for further optimization and preclinical studies for neurodegenerative proteinopathies.

Photo-Induced Cross-Linking of Unmodified α-Synuclein Oligomers.

Photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) has been used in the past to study size distributions of protein assemblies. PICUP may, for example, overcome the significant experimental challenges related to the transient nature, heterogeneity, and low concentration of amyloid protein oligomers relative to monomeric and fibrillar species. In the current study, a reaction chamber was designed, produced, and used for PICUP reaction optimization in terms of reaction conditions and lighting time from ms to s. These efforts make the method more reproducible and accessible and enable the use of shorter reaction times compared to previous studies. We applied the optimized method to an α-synuclein aggregation time course to monitor the relative concentration and size distribution of oligomers over time. The data are compared to the time evolution of the fibril mass concentration, as monitored by thioflavin T fluorescence. At all time points, the smaller the oligomer, the higher its concentration observed after PICUP. Moreover, the total oligomer concentration is highest at short aggregation times, and the decline over time follows the disappearance of monomers. We can therefore conclude that these oligomers form from monomers.

Redefining the Structure of Tip Links in Hair Cells.

Tip links are seen under microscopes as double-helical tetrameric complexes of long nonclassical cadherins, cadherin-23 and protocadherin-15. The twisted filamentous structure enables tip links to regulate mechanotransduction in hearing and balance. While the molecular details of the double-helical protocadherin-15 cis dimers have been deciphered, a similar conformation of cadherin-23 is still elusive. In a search of cadherin-23 cis dimers, we performed photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins in solution and on lipid membranes and observed no trace of cadherin-23 cis dimers. Reportedly, tip links are dynamic connections, assembling and disassembling in seconds. Using lipid vesicles, we measured significantly slower aggregations between cis dimers of tip link cadherins than via dimer-monomer interactions, indicating that the trans interactions between two cis dimers may possess steric restraints and defer reassociations. Reconnections of tip links are thus kinetically most desired between protocadherin-15 cis dimers and cadherin-23 monomers. Here we propose that the helical geometry of tip links is induced by protocadherin-15 cis dimers, while cadherin-23 remains single before tip linking.

Discovery of 4-aminoindole carboxamide derivatives to curtail alpha-synuclein and tau isoform 2N4R oligomer formation

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial, chronic neurodegenerative disease characterized by the presence of extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), activated microglial cells, and an inflammatory state (involving reactive oxygen species production) in the brain. NFTs are comprised of misfolded and hyperphosphorylated forms of the microtubule-binding protein tau. Interestingly, the trimeric form of the 2N4R splice isoform of tau has been found to be more toxic than the trimeric 1N4R isoform in neuron precursor cells. Few drug discovery programs have focused on specific tau isoforms. The present drug discovery project is centered on the anti-aggregation effect of a series of seventeen 4- or 5-aminoindole carboxamides on the 2N4R isoform of tau. The selection of the best compounds was performed using α-synuclein (α-syn). The anti-oligomer and -fibril activities of newly synthesized aminoindole carboxamide derivatives were evaluated with biophysical methods, such as thioflavin T fluorescence assays, photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins, and transmission electron microscopy. To evaluate the reduction of inclusions and cytoprotective effects, M17D neuroblastoma cells expressing inclusion-forming α-syn were treated with the best amide representatives. The 4-aminoindole carboxamide derivatives exhibited a better anti-fibrillar activity compared to their 5-aminoindole counterparts. The amide derivatives 2, 8, and 17 exerted anti-oligomer and anti-fibril activities on α-syn and the 2N4R isoform of tau. At a concentration of 40 µM, compound 8 reduced inclusion formation in M17D neuroblastoma cells expressing inclusion-prone αSynuclein3K::YFP. Our results demonstrate the potential of 4-aminoindole carboxamide derivatives with regard to inhibiting the oligomer formation of α-syn and tau (2N4R isoform) for further optimization prior to pre-clinical studies.

A Phenotypic‐based Drug Discovery Approach to Inhibit the Misfolding of Hyperphosphorylated Tau Isoform 1N4R

The vast majority of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) drug development efforts have failed because of significant gap in the understanding of the pathophysiological processes and insufficient effort in identifying, optimizing, and validating small molecules inhibitors of aggregation. AD involves the misfolding of amyloid‐beta which forms Aβ plaques and, subsequently, activates different types of microglial cells leading to a pro‐inflammatory state. Microglia when activated have been known to increase tau phosphorylation and drive the trans‐synaptic spread of aggregated hyperphosphorylated tau (p‐tau). Most importantly, the spatiotemporal distribution of neurofibrillary tangles predicts cognitive impairment. Instead of the unmodified tau that shows minimal effects on cell viability, our research focuses on the control of p‐tau that possesses disease‐relevant molecular features, including hyperphosphorylation and cytotoxicity. Our drug discovery project is centered on the isoform 1N4R due to its prevalence (1N) and long‐distance trans‐synaptic propagation (4R). We identified compounds that inhibit the aggregation and cytotoxicity of p‐tau, which represent a novel approach for AD drug discovery and development. Due to lack of binding pocket(s) and fast‐switching conformation of p‐tau, we opted for a phenotypic‐based drug screening approach to identify and optimize hit candidates. In our current project, the anti‐aggregation activity and cellular protection of newly synthesized small molecules were evaluated with biophysical methods (thioflavin S fluorescence assays, photo‐induced cross‐linking of unmodified proteins, dynamic light scattering) and survival assays with human neuroblastoma SH‐SY5Y cells. We prepared and tested 3 different series of small molecules and challenged these molecules with our first‐tier screening assay, i.e. thioflavin S fluorescence assays. Ureas and sulfonylureas series failed to inhibit the aggregation of p‐tau 1N4R. The best prototypical representative of the sulfonamide series, compound JF‐19‐73, effectively antagonized the cytotoxicity of p‐tau in vitro at low micromolar concentrations, suggesting the potential for neuroprotection in vivo. Other representatives of the sulfonamide series exhibited an intermediate effect to antagonize the aggregation and cytotoxicity of p‐tau isoform 1N4R. This project opens doors in targeting undruggable prone‐to‐aggregate proteins such as p‐tau and provides a molecular scaffold for further optimization and pre‐clinical studies focused on AD drug development.

Three-repeat and four-repeat tau isoforms form different oligomers.

Different tauopathies are characterized by the isoform-specific composition of the aggregates found in the brain and by structurally distinct tau strains. Although tau oligomers have been implicated as important neurotoxic species, little is known about how the primary structures of the six human tau isoforms affect tau oligomerization because the oligomers are metastable and difficult to analyze. To address this knowledge gap, here, we analyzed the initial oligomers formed by the six tau isoforms in the absence of posttranslational modifications or other manipulations using dot blots probed by an oligomer-specific antibody, native-PAGE/western blots, photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins, mass-spectrometry, and ion-mobility spectroscopy. We found that under these conditions, three-repeat (3R) isoforms are more prone than four-repeat (4R) isoforms to form oligomers. We also tested whether known inhibitors of tau aggregation affect its oligomerization using three small molecules representing different classes of tau aggregation inhibitors, Methylene Blue (MB), the molecular tweezer CLR01, and the all-D peptide TLKIVW, for their ability to inhibit or modulate the oligomerization of the six tau isoforms. Unlike their reported inhibitory effect on tau fibrillation, the inhibitors had little or no effect on the initial oligomerization. Our study provides novel insight into the primary-quaternary structure relationship of human tau and suggests that 3R-tau oligomers may be an important target for future development of compounds targeting pathological tau assemblies.

Amyloid‐β analysis from brain cells using microfluidics and mass spectrometry

Soluble amyloid β (Aβ) oligomers are identified as the main neurotoxic species in Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Currently, little is known about intracellular Aβ in human brains mainly due to a lack of a technology to access the proteomic cell content. Here, we developed a microfluidic assay for in situ mass spectrometry (MS) detection of immunocaptured Aβ from microdissected human brain cells using our previously established MIcrofluidic platform in tandem with MALDI-TOF MS (MIMAS). Moreover, Aβ monomers (Aβ-M) and oligomers (Aβ-O) were characterized extensively in vitro with multiple analytical techniques in preparation for the MIMAS assay from brain sections. To load cells directly on-chip, the MIMAS platform was coupled with laser capture microdissection (LCM). After all sample preparation steps on-chip, the elastomer platform is peeled-off from the conductive substrate, which serves as the target in the MS analysis. We employed antibody 6E10 for the affinity capture. Aβ-M and Aβ-O were prepared and analyzed by gel electrophoresis, MALDI-MS, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) was used to cross-link Aβ. The LCM-MIMAS coupling allowed for cell loading on-chip with 70% efficiency. We further implemented Aβ immunocapture on-chip showing the functioning principle of the assay in the microfluidic format. Gel characterization of native Aβ did not resolve Aβ-O, while the cross-linked Aβ-O species obtained with the PICUP technique were successfully observed. MALDI-MS spectra of native Aβ-O showed a range of different oligomeric species, up to 8-mers for Aβ40 and 12-mers for Aβ42, showing the capability to detect native Aβ-O with cross-linking. AFM imaging revealed oligomer heights of 1.38±1.03 nm for Aβ40 -O and 11.25±10.4 nm for Aβ42 -O. In agreement with MALDI, AFM showed larger oligomers for Aβ42 -O. The LCM-MIMAS approach could overcome the current limitations of accessing protein cell content, allowing the study of Aβ from brain cells. The Aβ characterization will facilitate the optimization of the assay. We plan to study soluble Aβ species from specific cell subpopulations in post-mortem brain tissue from the frontal cortex and hippocampus regions. The identification of AD-related Aβ species in brain cells could provide valuable insights into the disease.

In vitro characterization of urea derivatives to inhibit alpha-synuclein early-stage aggregation

Amyloidosis, a group of diseases caused by the fibrillation of prone-to-aggregate proteins, remains one of the most difficult ailments to treat human medicine. This study focuses on the amyloid protein, alpha-synuclein (α-syn), the major pathogenetic contributor to well-known diseases such as Parkinson's Disease (PD) and multiple system atrophy (MSA). We examine the effectiveness of our novel family of molecules, diaryl derivatives of urea, on the inhibition of early- and late-stage α-syn aggregation. Screening with Thioflavin-T (ThT) fluorescence assay has identified one compound 12 as a promising inhibitor for fibril formation (late-stage aggregation). Utilizing the Photo-induced Cross-linking of Unmodified Proteins (PICUP) assays, compound 12 impeded α-syn oligomerization (early-stage aggregation). In contrast to resveratrol, a polyphenol used as positive control, compound 12 delayed the lag time and did not generate globular structures of 5 nm per transmission electron microscopy (TEM). EC50 of compound 12 is 27.6 ± 1.3 µM. Compound 12 reduced cell inclusions and cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner using the inclusion-forming neuroblastoma cell-based assays. This family of compound has the potential to become an invaluable tool to abrogate, at the early-stage, α-syn aggregation.

Oligomerization Profile of Human Transthyretin Variants with Distinct Amyloidogenicity

One of the molecular hallmarks of amyloidoses is ordered protein aggregation involving the initial formation of soluble protein oligomers that eventually grow into insoluble fibrils. The identification and characterization of molecular species critical for amyloid fibril formation and disease development have been the focus of intense analysis in the literature. Here, using photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP), we studied the early stages of oligomerization of human transthyretin (TTR), a plasma protein involved in amyloid diseases (ATTR amyloidosis) with multiple clinical manifestations. Upon comparison, the oligomerization processes of wild-type TTR (TTRwt) and several TTR variants (TTRV30M, TTRL55P, and TTRT119M) clearly show distinct oligomerization kinetics for the amyloidogenic variants but a similar oligomerization mechanism. The oligomerization kinetics of the TTR amyloidogenic variants under analysis showed a good correlation with their amyloidogenic potential, with the most amyloidogenic variants aggregating faster (TTRL55P > TTRV30M > TTRwt). Moreover, the early stage oligomerization mechanism for these variants involves stepwise addition of monomeric units to the growing oligomer. A completely different behavior was observed for the nonamyloidogenic TTRT119M variant, which does not form oligomers in the same acidic conditions and even for longer incubation times. Thorough characterization of the initial steps of TTR oligomerization is critical for better understanding the origin of ATTR cytotoxicity and developing novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of ATTR amyloidosis.

Mapping of Photochemically-Derived Dityrosine across Fe-Bound N-Acetylated α-Synuclein.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurological disease and belongs to a group of neurodegenerative disorders called synucleinopathies in which pathological aggregates of N-terminally acetylated α-synuclein (NAcα-Syn) accumulate in various regions of the brain. In PD, these NAcα-Syn aggregates have been found to contain covalent dityrosine crosslinks, which can occur either intermolecularly or intramolecularly. Cerebral metal imbalance is also a hallmark of PD, warranting investigations into the effects of brain biometals on NAcα-Syn. NAcα-Syn is an intrinsically disordered protein, and metal-mediated conformational modifications of this structurally dynamic protein have been demonstrated to influence its propensity for dityrosine formation. In this study, a library of tyrosine-to-phenylalanine (Y-to-F) NAcα-Syn constructs were designed in order to elucidate the nature and the precise residues involved in dityrosine crosslinking of Fe-bound NAcα-Syn. The structural capacity of each mutant to form dityrosine crosslinks was assessed using Photo-Induced Cross-Linking of Unmodified Proteins (PICUP), demonstrating that coordination of either FeIII or FeII to NAcα-Syn inhibits dityrosine crosslinking among the C-terminal residues. We further demonstrate that Y39 is the main contributor to dityrosine formation of Fe-bound NAcα-Syn, while Y125 is the main residue involved in dityrosine crosslinks in unmetalated NAcα-Syn. Our results confirm that iron coordination has a global effect on NAcα-Syn structure and reactivity.

P2‐217: SUPRATHERAPEUTIC CONCENTRATIONS OF CILOSTAZOL INHIBITS β‐AMYLOID OLIGOMERIZATION IN VITRO

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia, and is currently incurable. The efficacy of existing treatments for AD such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors is limited to symptom improvement. Research on disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) has conventionally focused on amelioration of CNS pathogenesis. Two neuropathological changes correlate strongly with AD, the appearance of neurofibrillary tangles containing the microtubule-associated protein tau and extracellular amyloid deposits containing amyloid β-protein (Aβ). The aggregation of Aβ is believed to be the key pathogenic event in AD, with oligomeric assemblies thought to be the most neurotoxic form. Inhibitors of oligomer formation, therefore, could be valuable therapeutics for AD patients. The clinical phosphodiesterase type-3 inhibitor cilostazol (CSZ) was recently found to suppress the progression of cognitive decline in patients with stable AD receiving acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. We examined the effects of CSZ on in vitro aggregations of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 including oligomerization, using the thioflavin T assay, photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins, and electron microscopy. CSZ (25-100 μM) inhibited Aβ aggregation, especially oligomer formation. Considering that CSZ might be a key molecule for DMTs of AD, it cannot be ruled out that the low concentration of CSZ achievable in patient dosing may display some ant-oligomeric activity in synergy with its known therapeutic effects.

Supratherapeutic concentrations of cilostazol inhibits β-amyloid oligomerization in vitro

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia, and is currently incurable. The efficacy of existing treatments for AD such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors is limited to symptom improvement. Research on disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) has conventionally focused on amelioration of CNS pathogenesis. Two neuropathological changes correlate strongly with AD, the appearance of neurofibrillary tangles containing the microtubule-associated protein tau and extracellular amyloid deposits containing amyloid β-protein (Aβ). The aggregation of Aβ is believed to be the key pathogenic event in AD, with oligomeric assemblies thought to be the most neurotoxic form. Inhibitors of oligomer formation, therefore, could be valuable therapeutics for AD patients. The clinical phosphodiesterase type-3 inhibitor cilostazol (CSZ) was recently found to suppress the progression of cognitive decline in patients with stable AD receiving acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. Here we examined the effects of CSZ on in vitro aggregations of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 including oligomerization, using the thioflavin T assay, photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins, and electron microscopy. CSZ (25–100 μM) inhibited Aβ aggregation, especially oligomer formation. Considering that CSZ might be a key molecule for DMTs of AD, it cannot be ruled out that the low concentration of CSZ achievable in patient dosing may display some ant-oligomeric activity in synergy with its known therapeutic effects.

Direct Evidence of the Presence of Cross-Linked Aβ Dimers in the Brains of Alzheimer's Disease Patients.

Brain-derived amyloid-β (Aβ) dimers are associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, their covalent nature remains controversial. This feature is relevant, as a covalent cross-link has been proposed to make brain-derived dimers (brain dimers) more synaptotoxic than Aβ monomers and would also make them suitable candidates for biomarker development. To resolve this controversy, we here present a three-step approach. First, we validated a type of synthetic cross-linked Aβ (CL Aβ) dimers, obtained by means of the photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) reaction, as well-defined mimics of putative brain CL Aβ dimers. Second, we used these PICUP CL Aβ dimers as standards to improve the isolation of brain Aβ dimers and to develop state-of-the-art mass spectrometry (MS) strategies to allow their characterization. Third, we applied these MS methods to the analysis of brain Aβ dimer samples allowing the detection of the CL [Aβ(6-16)]2 peptide comprising a dityrosine cross-link. This result demonstrates the presence of CL Aβ dimers in the brains of patients with AD and opens up avenues for establishing new therapeutic targets and developing novel biomarkers for this disease.

Preparation of Pure Populations of Amyloid β-Protein Oligomers of Defined Size.

Protein and peptide oligomers are thought to play important roles in the pathogenesis of a number of neurodegenerative diseases. For this reason, considerable effort has been devoted to understanding the oligomerization process and to determining structure-activity relationships among the many types of oligomers that have been described. We discuss here a method for producing pure populations of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) of specific sizes using the most pathologic form of the peptide, Aβ42. This work was necessitated because Aβ oligomerization produces oligomers of many different sizes that are non-covalently associated, which means that dissociation or further assembly may occur. These characteristics preclude rigorous structure-activity determinations. In studies of Aβ40, we have used the method of photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) to produce zero-length carbon-carbon bonds among the monomers comprising each oligomer, thus stabilizing the oligomers. We then isolated pure populations of oligomers by fractionating the oligomers by size using SDS-PAGE and then extracting each population from the stained gel bands. Although this procedure worked well with the shorter Aβ40 peptide, we found that a significant percentage of Aβ42 oligomers had not been stabilized. Here, we discuss a new method capable of yielding stable Aβ42 oligomers of sizes from dimer through dodecamer.

Poly(colloid)s: "Polymerization" of Poly(l-tyrosine)-silica Composite Particles through the Photoinduced Cross-Linking of Unmodified Proteins Method.

Photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins, PICUP, was extended to core-shell silica-polypeptide composite particles to produce poly(colloid)s. Silica particles coated with poly(l-tyrosine), PTYR-SiO2, served as the monomer units. The PICUP reaction accomplished the formation of dityrosil linkages between the tyrosine units by illumination of photo-oxidizing ruthenium(II) bipyridyl catalyst under physiological conditions. The PICUP method was compared with an enzymatic route intermediated by horseradish peroxidase as catalyst. The PTYR-SiO2 particles feature high PTYR content in the shell, which facilitated the formation of heavily cross-linked but unstructured aggregates. After magnetic alignment of superparamagnetic PTYR-SiO2-cobalt composite particles, only the PICUP approach enabled the preparation of isolated chain-like poly(colloid)s. The cross-linking products were confirmed by FTIR. The native secondary structure of poly(l-tyrosine) is preserved in these poly(colloid)s. Because the PICUP reaction does not require the modification of the polypeptide structure, the cross-linked PTYR will retain its characteristic functions as a poly(amino acid). The PICUP method opens the door to a variety of PTYR-based poly(colloid) architectures.

Stabilization of native amyloid β-protein oligomers by Copper and Hydrogen peroxide Induced Cross-linking of Unmodified Proteins (CHICUP)

Oligomeric assemblies are postulated to be proximate neurotoxic species in human diseases associated with aberrant protein aggregation. Their heterogeneous and transient nature makes their structural characterization difficult. Size distributions of oligomers of several amyloidogenic proteins, including amyloid β-protein (Aβ) relevant to Alzheimer's disease (AD), have been previously characterized in vitro by photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Due to non-physiological conditions associated with the PICUP chemistry, Aβ oligomers cross-linked by PICUP may not be representative of in vivo conditions. Here, we examine an alternative Copper and Hydrogen peroxide Induced Cross-linking of Unmodified Proteins (CHICUP), which utilizes naturally occurring divalent copper ions and hydrogen peroxide and does not require photo activation. Our results demonstrate that CHICUP and PICUP applied to the two predominant Aβ alloforms, Aβ40 and Aβ42, result in similar oligomer size distributions. Thioflavin T fluorescence data and atomic force microscopy images demonstrate that both CHICUP and PICUP stabilize Aβ oligomers and attenuate fibril formation. Relative to noncross-linked peptides, CHICUP-treated Aβ40 and Aβ42 cause prolonged disruption to biomimetic lipid vesicles. CHICUP-stabilized Aβ oligomers link the amyloid cascade, metal, and oxidative stress hypotheses of AD into a more comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of AD pathology. Because copper and hydrogen peroxide are elevated in the AD brain, CHICUP-stabilized Aβ oligomers are biologically relevant and should be further explored as a new therapeutic target.

Soluble Prion Protein Binds Isolated Low Molecular Weight Amyloid-β Oligomers Causing Cytotoxicity Inhibition.

A growing number of observations indicate that soluble amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers play a major role in Alzheimer's disease. Recent studies strongly suggest that at least some of the neurotoxic effects of these oligomers are mediated by cellular, membrane-anchored prion protein and that Aβ neurotoxicity can be inhibited by soluble recombinant prion protein (rPrP) and its fragments. However, the mechanism by which rPrP interacts with Aβ oligomers and prevents their toxicity is largely unknown, and studies in this regard are hindered by the large structural heterogeneity of Aβ oligomers. To overcome this difficulty, here we used photoinduced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) to isolate well-defined oligomers of Aβ42 and characterize these species with regard to their cytotoxicity and interaction with rPrP, as well the mechanism by which rPrP inhibits Aβ42 cytotoxicity. Our data shows that the addition of rPrP to the assembling Aβ42 results in a shift in oligomer size distribution, decreasing the population of toxic tetramers and higher order oligomers and increasing the population of nontoxic (and possibly neuroprotective) monomers. Isolated oligomeric species of Aβ42 are cytotoxic to primary neurons and cause permeation of model lipid bilayers. These toxic effects, which are oligomer size-dependent, can be inhibited by the addition of rPrP, and our data suggest potential mechanisms of this inhibitory action. This insight should help in current efforts to develop PrP-based therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease.

Phenolic compounds prevent the oligomerization of α-synuclein and reduce synaptic toxicity.

Lewy bodies, mainly composed of α-synuclein (αS), are pathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Epidemiological studies showed that green tea consumption or habitual intake of phenolic compounds reduced Parkinson's disease risk. We previously reported that phenolic compounds inhibited αS fibrillation and destabilized preformed αS fibrils. Cumulative evidence suggests that low-order αS oligomers are neurotoxic and critical species in the pathogenesis of α-synucleinopathies. To develop disease modifying therapies for α-synucleinopathies, we examined effects of phenolic compounds (myricetin (Myr), curcumin, rosmarinic acid (RA), nordihydroguaiaretic acid, and ferulic acid) on αS oligomerization. Using methods such as photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins, circular dichroism spectroscopy, the electron microscope, and the atomic force microscope, we showed that Myr and RA inhibited αS oligomerization and secondary structure conversion. The nuclear magnetic resonance analysis revealed that Myr directly bound to the N-terminal region of αS, whereas direct binding of RA to monomeric αS was not detected. Electrophysiological assays for long-term potentiation in mouse hippocampal slices revealed that Myr and RA ameliorated αS synaptic toxicity by inhibition of αS oligomerization. These results suggest that Myr and RA prevent the αS aggregation process, reducing the neurotoxicity of αS oligomers. To develop disease modifying therapies for α-synucleinopathies, we examined effects of phenolic compounds on α-synuclein (αS) oligomerization. Phenolic compounds, especially Myricetin (Myr) and Rosmarinic acid (RA), inhibited αS oligomerization and secondary structure conversion. Myr and RA ameliorated αS synaptic toxicity on the experiment of long-term potentiation. Our results suggest that Myr and RA prevent αS aggregation process and reduce the neurotoxicity of αS oligomers. Phenolic compounds are good candidates of disease modifying drugs for α-synucleinopathies.