Photographic Tourism Research Articles

Inclement Entrepreneurial Gaps in Community Wildlife Management Business Model: A Case of Mbarang’andu and Tunduru Wmas in Southern Tanzania

Purpose: This study examined entrepreneurial gaps in Mbarang’andu and Tunduru Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) since their establishment during the 5 years of business plan operations and implications thereafter. Design/Methodology/Approach: The population of this study was five WMAs that formed the cases for the study, and for the case of WMA leaders, the population was 40 leaders. The sample size for the WMAs selected as the cases for the study were two (2), Tunduru and Mbarang’andu purposefully selected. Further, the sample size for WMA leaders was 20 (50% of the population) purposefully selected. Descriptive analysis was used to summarise demographic and revenue data, and a Pearson Chi-square test was performed on the demographic data. A paired samples T-test was used to compare the required business start-up and available funds to reveal the equity gap in the two WMAs and compare the level of implementation of planned business activities in the two WMAs. Research Limitation: The research was limited to two WMAs and a small sample size since the client determined its size, given that this paper emanated from the consultancy project. Findings: Findings indicate that both WMAs have a high potential for carbon trading, photographic tourism, beekeeping, fish farming, and heritage tourism. The difference in the required funding and available funds for various expenditures in business start-ups was found to be statistically significant in both WMAs. The difference in the level of implementation of planned business activities was also found to be statistically significant in the two WMAs. Practical implications: To bridge the entrepreneurial gaps in the WMAs, proactive fundraising, diversification of income-generating activities, including carbon trading, human resource capacity building, and appropriate marketing of tourism and nature-based products are needed. Social Implications: The results of this research will form the basis for bridging entrepreneurial gaps in the WMAs, hence fueling optimal exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities in wildlife that benefit the community at large in return. Originality: This paper is original; only some extracts were used in the conference proceedings for the University of Dodoma (UDOM) 2019. Its novelty is inclined to expose entrepreneurial gaps and the framework for bridging such gaps in wildlife businesses.

Accounting for Climate Change in Community-Based Natural Resource Management: Reflections on Wildlife Conservation in Namibia

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) has emerged as a key technique for resource governance across much of southern Africa. While it was seen early on in its inception in many countries as a virtual panacea for sustainable development, its success has waned over time. While the predominant literature points to a number of reasons for diminished benefits, I argue in this article that climate change is the binding constraint to programme success. I further argue that this has been largely omitted from scholarly research owing to CBNRM being analysed predominantly as a domestic policy for conservation, which ignores the global dynamic of this form of resource governance and the power imbalances created by the many players involved. I argue that CBNRM is best understood as a global assemblage in which competing actors exercise various forms of power that are at times synergistic and at other times in opposition to one another. The article specifically outlines the issue of trophy hunting as a form of ‘consumptive’ conservation, which is generally framed in contrast to photographic tourism, seen widely as a ‘non-consumptive’ form of conservation. Based on fieldwork conducted in Namibia, I argue that all forms of tourism are in fact consumptive and that all variables need to be accounted for in deciding what is consumptive or not consumptive.

Can the subaltern speak? Contradictions in trophy hunting and wildlife conservation trajectory in Botswana

Botswana re-introduced trophy hunting in 2019. This generated a debate about the relevance of trophy hunting in achieving wildlife conservation and human well-being among wildlife stakeholders. The stakeholders include the Government of Botswana, local agro-pastoralists, photographic and trophy hunting tourism operators and anti-hunting groups. Stakeholders differ in opinion on the acceptability of trophy hunting as a socio-economic development and conservation tool. This paper, therefore, adopts the socio-ecological framework and uses Spivak’s rhetoric question: “Can the Subaltern Speak”, to analyse contradictions of trophy hunting, human well-being and wildlife conservation trajectory in Botswana. The study is qualitative and makes use of interviews and secondary data sources. The results indicate that the Government of Botswana and communities (agro-pastoralists) especially those residing in wildlife areas prefer both trophy hunting and photographic tourism as a strategy to derive tourism benefits and achieve wildlife conservation. Conversely, animal rights groups reject trophy hunting noting its failure to promote wildlife conservation. The paper concludes that the socio-ecological framework is the ideal guide for wildlife conservation and human well-being in wildlife areas. Both photographic tourism and trophy hunting are sustainable land use options with the potential to achieve wildlife conservation and human well-being in Botswana.

Leopard population density varies across habitats and management strategies in a mixed-use Tanzanian landscape

With large carnivores undergoing widespread range contractions across Africa, effective monitoring across mixed-use landscapes should be considered a priority to identify at-risk populations and prioritise conservation actions. We provide the first comparison of leopard population density within different components of a mixed-use landscape in Tanzania, via spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) modelling of camera trap data from the Ruaha-Rungwa landscape in 2018 and 2019. Population density was highest in highly-productive Acacia-Commiphora habitat in the core tourist area of Ruaha National Park (6.81 ± 1.24 leopards per 100 km2). The next highest density (4.23 ± 1.02 per 100 km2) was estimated in similar habitat in a neighbouring community-managed area (Idodi-Pawaga MBOMIPA WMA). Lowest densities were estimated in miombo (Brachystegia-Jubelnardia) woodland habitat, both in a trophy hunting area (Rungwa Game Reserve; 3.36 ± 1.09 per 100 km2) and inside the National Park (3.23 ± 1.25 per 100 km2). Population density was highly correlated with prey abundance, suggesting that variation in leopard density may be primarily driven by availability of prey, which likely varies with habitat types and anthropogenic impacts. Anthropogenic mortality may also have a direct influence on leopard in more impacted areas, but further research is required to investigate this. Our findings show that a hunting area with significant protection investment supports a leopard density comparable to similar habitat in a photographic tourism area. We also provide evidence that community-managed areas have the potential to effectively conserve large carnivore populations at relatively high densities, but may be vulnerable to edge effects.

Effects of the safari hunting tourism ban on rural livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Northern Botswana

This paper examines the effects of the safari hunting ban of 2014 on rural livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Northern Botswana using the social exchange theory. The paper used both primary and secondary data sources. Data were analysed qualitatively. Results indicate that the ban led to a reduction of tourism benefits to local communities such as: income, employment opportunities, social services such as funeral insurance, scholarships and income required to make provision of housing for the needy and elderly. After the hunting ban, communities were forced to shifts from hunting to photographic tourism. Reduced tourism benefits have led to the development of negative attitudes by rural residents towards wildlife conservation and the increase in incidents of poaching in Northern Botswana. The implications of hunting ban suggest that policy shifts that affect wildlife conservation and rural livelihoods need to be informed by socio-economic and ecological research. This participatory and scientific approach to decision-making has the potential to contribute sustainability of livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Botswana.

The performance of African protected areas for lions and their prey

Using surveys of experts associated with 186 sites across 24 countries, we assessed the effectiveness of African protected areas (PAs) at conserving lions and their prey, identified factors that influence conservation effectiveness, and identified patterns in the severity of various threats. Less than one third of sampled PAs conserve lions at ≥50% of their estimated carrying capacity (K), and less than half conserve lion prey species at ≥50% of K. Given adequate management, PAs could theoretically support up to 4× the total extant population of wild African lions (~83,000), providing a measurable benchmark for future conservation efforts. The performance of PAs shows marked geographic variation, and in several countries there is a need for a significant elevation in conservation effort. Bushmeat poaching was identified as the most serious threat to both lions and to wildlife in general. The severity of threats to wildlife in PAs and the performance of prey populations were best predicted by geographic-socioeconomic variables related to the size of PAs, whether people were settled within PAs, human/livestock densities in neighbouring areas and national economic indicators. However, conservation outcomes for lions were best explained by management variables. PAs tended to be more effective for conserving lions and/or their prey where management budgets were higher, where photographic tourism was the primary land use, and, for prey, where fencing was present. Lions and prey fared less well relative to their estimated potential carrying capacities in poorer countries, where people were settled within PAs and where PAs were used for neither photographic tourism nor trophy hunting.

An Eye-Tracking Study of Tourism Photo Stimuli

As tourism’s intangibility leads tourism marketers to rely heavily on visuals such as photographic images, the selection of visual stimuli that attract the target audience’s attention is critical. This study used a triangulated approach that included both self-reports and observational eye-tracking data. Australian and Chinese participants were recruited to view a series of photographic tourism images that depicted either high or low arousal activities and natural or built environments. Australian participants fixated more frequently, and for longer durations, than Chinese. Fixation also varied with the image conditions, with the Chinese group having particularly low fixation durations and counts for the low arousal or natural condition. This study fills the void in visual attention research in tourism and presents a novel approach to understanding the appeal of tourism images to potential tourists.

Methods for lion monitoring: a comparison from the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

AbstractThe Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania is believed to contain Africa's largest population of lions (Panthera leo), making it a popular destination for trophy hunters and photographic tourists. However, a lack of recent data has raised concerns about the conservation status of this iconic population, so we collected two types of population data between 2006 and 2009. First, we identified 112 individual animals in an 800 km2 study area in the photographic tourism part of Selous, giving a density of 0.14 individuals km−2. This density estimate was similar to results using the same method from 1997 to 1999, but the adult sex ratio has decreased from 1 male : 1.3 female in 1997 to 1 male : 3 females in 2009. Second, using buffalo calf distress calls, we conducted call‐up surveys to census lions in three hunting sectors in the west, east and south of Selous and in the northern photographic area. Estimated adult lion densities varied from 0.02 to 0.10 km−2, allowing an overall population estimate of 4,300 (range: 1,700–6,900). Our results highlight the value of call‐ups in surveying cryptic hunted carnivores but stress the importance of long‐term projects for calibrating the responses to call‐ups and for measuring trends in demography and population size.

The effectiveness of economic incentives for sustaining community based natural resource management

Incentives are key to attracting and maintaining participation in community based natural resource management (CBNRM) initiatives. However, incentives cannot work if people do not know about them, if they are inappropriate or if they are delivered in insufficient quantities. In southern African CBNRM initiatives, many incentives are offered, particularly jobs and community income from hunting and photographic tourism activities. There is a need to assess – jointly – residents’ knowledge and perceptions of these incentives and their actual delivery to determine whether they are likely to be effective in sustaining participation in CBNRM activities over the long run. This paper reports the results of just such an assessment at two CBNRM sites, the Tchuma Tchato project in Mozambique and Kwandu Conservancy in Namibia. While different types of benefits were delivered at both sites, they were largely of low value and low in volume. It appears that the incentives offered are not inappropriate, but are insufficient – too few people benefit directly and the level of benefits is generally too small. Further, a large minority of households feel benefits have been inequitably distributed and that the direct costs of living with wildlife have been ineffectively addressed. These issues should be viewed as potentially serious challenges to maintaining local participation in CBNRM activities in the long run.

Tourism in Maasai communities: a chance to improve livelihoods?

This paper examines community-based tourism among Maasai communities in Tanzania in the context of national policies that have increasingly devolved control over natural resources to local communities. It focuses on economic revenues generated from tourism growth, their distribution to village communities and the constraints and conflicts resulting from attempts to control or access resources. Specific cases illustrate the political and economic complexity of devolved resource management and increased income generation at the community level. Ecotourism and community-based tourism are frequently claimed to be possible remedies for wildlife and natural resources conservation, but research indicates that implementation and revenue-sharing are far from straightforward. The paper uses case studies from communities in northern Tanzania, in Ngorongoro District (Loliondo and Lake Natron), Simanjiro District and Longido District (West Kilimanjaro) to explore issues between pastoralism, cultivation, hunting tourism, photographic tourism, conservation and governance systems. It discusses the implementation of the 1998 National Forestry and Wildlife Policies, the creation of Wildlife Management Areas and the 1999 Land Act and Village Land Act. Data and experiences were gathered over a three-year period working with the Sand County Foundation – Tanzania from 2006 to 2008. The paper contributes to the assessment and discussion of pro-poor tourism and poverty alleviation concepts.

SUSTAMABILITY OF WILDLIFE UTILISATION IN THE CHOBE DISTRICT, BOTSWANA

ABSTRACT This paper assesses the influence of policies on the ecological, economic and sociological sustainability of wildlife utilisation using a case study of Chobe District in northern Botswana. The paper further assesses how some international conventions influence the conservation and utilisation of wildlife resources in Botswana. The approach used in the study was essentially a literature review with some visits to the study area where consultative meetings with key stakeholders were held in order to verify the validity of the available information and clarify an contradictory issues found in the literature. The study found that wildlife management in Botswana is regulated and guided by the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act and the Wildlife Conservation Policy. Wildlife utilisation on the other hand is facilitated by the Tourism Act, the Tourism regulations and the Community Based Natural Resources Management Policy. Though reliable data is not available, it is believed that wildlife is very important to the economy of Botswana as it contributes substantial revenues through photographic tourism and safari hunting and provides employment to many people in rural communities in which wildlife utilisation takes place. In 1997, a total of 750,000 tourists came to Botswana resulting in a total of US$181 million being realised by the industry. It is in due recognition of the importance of wildlife and its contribution to the economy that the government of Botswana has set aside about 17% of the country as National Parks and Game Reserves. The study identifies drought, illegal hunting, livestock cordon fences, wildlife-human conflicts and CITES regulations and unequitable sharing of wildlife generated revenues between local communities and the tour operators as the major threats to sustainable wildlife conservation and management in Botswana.

Development of a model system for touristic hunting revenue collection and allocation

Ecotourism can take many forms and provide different levels of human and environmental benefits. The trend has been toward nonconsumptive forms of nature-based tourism, such as bird-watching and photographic tourism. Declining budgets, however, have forced many managers to look increasingly to consumptive uses of natural resources, which have more revenue-producing potential. One consumptive option, trophy or sport hunting, provides significantly higher revenues on a per visitor basis than photographic tourism, and it may also impact the environment less severely. The tourist hunting industries of six eastern and southern African countries are profiled, and models of their revenue collection and disbursement systems provided. The relative merits of the six systems are discussed in terms of the level of benefits which accrue to local people and to wildlife protection programs. An optimal revenue collection/disbursement system is proposed.

Social Variation of Lions in a Male-Depopulated Area in Zambia

Lions (Panthera leo) are a principal attraction for both safari hunting and photographic tourism, principal sources of revenue in the Luangwa Valley in eastern Zambia. I studied 6 lion prides in the Valley during 1989-91 to determine how high harvest of adult male lions influenced social behavior. Adult male lions are subject to significant hunting pressure influencing the number of adult male lions (ad M/ad F = 0.17-0.33) and male coalition size (0.67-1.50 ad M/pride). I observed the following social system: (1) ranges of pride males did not cover the entire pride ranges and were not confined to a specific pride range; (2) copulation occurred between females and males from different prides; and (3) at least 1 pride male gained additional companions during his pride tenure. This social system differs from those found in previous studies of lion populations, and it permits a limited number of males to manage more females, counterbalancing high male harvest.