Drug Photodegradation Research Articles

Green synthesis of Silver-iron-zinc oxides nanocomposite via Embelia schimperia leaf extract for photo-degradation of antibiotic drug from pharmaceutical wastewater

The co-precipitation approach is used in the current study to create an environmentally friendly Ag/Fe/ZnO nanocomposites utilizing an aqueous leaf extract of Embelia schimperia. The synthesized nanocomposite was characterized using Fourier-transform infrared, UV, X-ray, UV–vis, DLS, TGA, and SEM to determine its functional group, structure, bandgap energy, size distribution, a mass of loss, and energy gain or loss, and morphological structure, respectively. The bioactive components of Embelia schimperia, synthesized Ag/Fe/ZnO NCs and degradation of Amoxicillin via photocatalyst were assessed. The response surface methodology of central composite design (CCD) was used to examine and optimize the effects of three independent variables on the degradation of Amoxicillin under visible light. According to the experimental findings, the maximum photocatalytic degradation efficiency was achieved at green synthesized Ag/Fe/ZnO NCs dosage of 100 mg, a concentration of Amoxicillin of 30 mg/L and a radiation time of 180 min. Their findings show that Embelia schimperia extract-derived Ag/Fe/ZnO nanocomposites is a promising alternative for degradation of pharmaceuticals contamination of wastewater via photocatalytic under the given conditions.

Hydrothermal synthesis of CoSnO3 nanocubes-incorporated graphitic carbon nitride for the efficient photodegradation of organic dye and antibiotic drug

In this work, an eco-friendly, low-cost, facile synthesis of CoSnO3/g-C3N4 using an in-situ hydrothermal method by incorporating graphitic carbon nanosheets. In as-prepared nanocomposite, the CoSnO3 nano cubes strongly attached to graphitic carbon nanosheets due to the ionic interaction which leads to improved catalytic activity, conductivity and stability. The as-synthesized nanocomposite was characterized by various spectral, structural and optical studies and it was applied for the photocatalytic degradation of organic dye-methylene blue (MB) and antibiotic drug-norfloxacin (NOR). From DRS-UV analysis, CoSnO3 exhibit a bandgap of 2.93 eV, g-C3N4 and CoSnO3/g-C3N4 has 2.84 eV and 1.95 eV, respectively. The nanocomposite demonstrates admirable degradation efficiency of 95.24 % for Methylene blue within 50-min and 95.99 % for Norfloxacin within a 70-min period under visible-light active conditions and surpass the performance of pure CoSnO3 and g-C3N4 due to the synergetic acceleration of heterojunction. The results have demonstrated that the CoSnO3/g-C3N4 nanocomposite exhibits significant potential as a photocatalyst for the degrading NOR antibiotic and MB dye. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis identified four potential routes for the degradation intermediates of norfloxacin. Moreover, the nanocomposite material exhibits long term stability, durability and good bio comfortability.

Efficient photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac drug using the Zn1-x-yPrxAlyO photocatalyst under UV light irradiation.

Herein, we report the efficient photocatalytic degradation of the diclofenac drug using the Zn1-x-yPrxAlyO photocatalyst [x, y] = (0.00, 0.00), (0.03, 0.01), (0.03,0.03) under UV light irradiation. The analysis of the structure reveals that the Pr3+ and Al3+ cations insertion into the ZnO lattice leads to a decrease in the lattice constant (a and c), Zn-O bond length, strain lattice, and crystallite size. These alterations are linked to the high degree of atomic disorder triggered by the dopants, which produce stress and strain in the ZnO structure. The Raman measurements confirmed the structural phase and showed changes in the position and intensity of the E2High mode, associated with oxygen vibrations and material crystallinity. The presence of the dopants reduces the concentration of VZn and VO++ type defects while increasing the levels of VO, VO+, and Oi defects, as observed from the fitting of the Photoluminescence spectra. Furthermore, it was noted that de Pr3+ and Al3+ cations insertion into ZnO increases the optical band gap, which is associated with the Moss-Burstein effect. The micrograph images show that dopants transform the morphology from quasi-spherical particles to irregular cluster structures. The textural analysis indicated that an increase in the concentration of Al3+ in the ZnO lattice led to a higher surface area, likely enhancing photocatalytic activity. The sample containing 3% Pr3+ and 3% Al3+ showed the highest photocatalytic activity and degraded up to 71.42% of diclofenac. In addition, experiments with scavengers revealed that hydroxyl radicals are the main species involved in the drug's photodegradation mechanism. Finally, the Zn1-x-yPrxAlyO compound is highly recyclable and stable.

Synthesis of novel α-cyclodextrin conjugated ZnFe2O4-GO nanocomposites for electrochemical detection of hazardous imidacloprid insecticide and enhanced photodegradation of levofloxacin drug

Considering water quality deterioration researchers are on the path to invent multifunctional materials that have encourage both sensing and mitigation of aquatic hazardous compounds. Herein, ZnFe2O4-GO multifunctional nanocomposites were synthesized with varied GO composition via hydrothermal method for electrochemical detection of toxic imidacloprid (IMD) in addition to photo-Fenton degradation of perilous levofloxacin (LFX) drug. The glassy carbon electrode modified with 10ZFGACD (10ZFGACD/GCE) exhibited excellent current response towards IMD under optimized conditions. The sensor 10ZFGACD/GCE showed wide linear range (4 to 400 μM) with decent detection limits of 0.26 μM for IMD. Further, during photo-Fenton degradation of LFX, 10ZFGACD exhibited substantially higher catalytic activity in comparison to 10ZFG. Thus, the present work for the first time highlighted the potential of 10ZFGACD nanocomposite for dual functional capabilities of electrocatalytic detection and photocatalytic annihilation of aqueous organic toxicants.

Photodegradation of anthelmintic drugs under natural sunlight and simulated irradiation: kinetics, mechanisms, transformation products, and toxicity.

Albendazole (ALB) and bithionol (BIT) are two anthelmintic drugs (ADs) with high consumption from benzimidazole group and diphenylsulfide group, respectively. However, information on the transformation of the two anthelmintics under environmental condition is scare. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the natural attenuation of the two ADs in the aquatic environment, including biodegradation, hydrolysis, and direct and indirect photodegradation. The direct photodegradation occupied a vast portion among other degradation pathways of the two ADs in natural water, with near-surface summer half-lives of 0.272-0.387h and 0.110-0.520h for ALB and BIT, respectively. Suspended particles in water were found to facilitate the photodegradation of the two ADs. Study on the indirect photodegradation demonstrated the positive roles of singlet oxygen (1O2) and excited triplet dissolved organic matter (3DOM*) in the photolysis of the two ADs, whereas the hydroxyl radical (•OH) affected little on the overall photodegradation procedures of ALB due to the scavenging effect of HCO3-. Dual effects of DO, DOM, HCO3-, NO3-, and NO2- on the photodegradation of ALB and BIT were perceived. Transformation intermediates (TIs) of the two ADs during photodegradation were analyzed by UHPLC-QTOF-MS. Six TIs of ALB were identified, including a broad-spectrum fungicide carbendazim and another common AD ricobendazole. Two TIs of BIT yielded from dechlorination were also detected. Probable transformation mechanism and predicted aquatic ecotoxicity based on the identified TIs were unveiled.

Photodegradation of Antibiotic Drugs by BiVO4 Nanocomposites

BiVO4 and its composites were prepared and compared with tetracycline hydrochloride, chlortetracycline hydrochloride and hygromycin hydrochloride to simulate the target degradation species for photocatalytic degradation experiments. All the prepared samples were found to have strong degradation effects on the three antibiotics, and the composite photocatalysts GB, PB and PGB showed faster photocatalytic reaction rates and higher photocatalytic activity than the pure BiVO4. In addition, the degradation of each sample to each antibiotic solution was in accordance with the primary reaction kinetic equation. The UV detection of PGB degradation of antibiotics was also carried out, and the results showed that the catalyst has a strong oxidation ability to degrade antibiotics to small molecules.

Encapsulation of α-Lipoic Acid in Halloysite Nanotubes

A nanocomposite material based on halloysite and α-lipoic acid was studied. The kinetics of the degradation process of α-lipoic acid under the influence of ultraviolet radiation and thermal stress in its native state and in the composition of a halloysite-based nanocomposite were studied. The concentration of undegraded α-lipoic acid and the effect of the nanocomposite composition were determined by the HPLC method. It has been shown that adding α-lipoic acid to halloysite using a vacuum method allows for an increase in its resistance toward UV light of 84.4%, and the thermal resistance was also significantly improved. The composite based on halloysite and α-lipoic acid can be used to improve the resistance to photodegradation of pharmaceutical drugs or sunscreen cosmetics because this strategy preserves the biological active properties and shelf life of the α-lipoic acid.

Hydrothermal fabrication of n-CeO2/p-CuS heterojunction nanocomposite for enhanced photodegradation of pharmaceutical drugs in wastewater under visible-light and fluorometric sensor for detection of uric acid

Hydrothermal fabrication of n-CeO2/p-CuS heterojunction nanocomposite for enhanced photodegradation of pharmaceutical drugs in wastewater under visible-light and fluorometric sensor for detection of uric acid

Recent Progress on Semiconductor Heterogeneous Photocatalysts in Clean Energy Production and Environmental Remediation

Semiconductor-based photocatalytic reactions are a practical class of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to address energy scarcity and environmental pollution. By utilizing solar energy as a clean, abundant, and renewable source, this process offers numerous advantages, including high efficiency, eco-friendliness, and low cost. In this review, we present several methods to construct various photocatalyst systems with excellent visible light absorption and efficient charge carrier separation ability through the optimization of materials design and reaction conditions. Then it introduces the fundamentals of photocatalysis in both clean energy generation and environmental remediation. In the other parts, we introduce various approaches to enhance photocatalytic activity by applying different strategies, including semiconductor structure modification (e.g., morphology regulation, co-catalysts decoration, doping, defect engineering, surface sensitization, heterojunction construction) and tuning and optimizing reaction conditions (such as photocatalyst concentration, initial contaminant concentration, pH, reaction temperature, light intensity, charge-carrier scavengers). Then, a comparative study on the photocatalytic performance of the various recently examined photocatalysts applied in both clean energy production and environmental remediation will be discussed. To realize these goals, different photocatalytic reactions including H2 production via water splitting, CO2 reduction to value-added products, dye, and drug photodegradation to lessen toxic chemicals, will be presented. Subsequently, we report dual-functional photocatalysis systems for simultaneous energy production and pollutant photodegradation for efficient reactions. Then, a brief discussion about the industrial and economical applications of photocatalysts is described. The report follows by introducing the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning in the design and selection of an innovative photocatalyst in energy and environmental issues. Finally, a summary and future research directions toward developing photocatalytic systems with significantly improved efficiency and stability will be provided.

Distribution and photodegradation of typical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in an ice-water system: Simulation of surface waters with an ice cover

In surface waters at middle and high latitudes during winter, the coexistence of ice and water is a natural phenomenon. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as emerging contaminants have been found frequently in aquatic environments, including waters that are seasonally covered in ice. However, little is available for the environmental behaviors and fate of NSAIDs in ice, particularly in the system where ice and water coexist. In this study, the distribution and photodegradation of model NSAIDs naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DCF), and acetaminophen (APAP) in an ice-water system were investigated. The findings demonstrated a 66.7%, 60.5%, and 66.7% increase in the ice-water distribution coefficient Kiw of NPX, DCF, and APAP with initial concentrations of 10 ng L−1 relative to 500 ng L−1. The Kiw values were in decreased order of DCF, NPX, and APAP. The photodegradation rate constants of NPX, DCF, and APAP in ice increased by 27.0%, 35.6%, and 56.6% relative to those in water. With the increase in freezing time, the contribution ratios of distribution to the mass loss of NPX, DCF, and APAP increased by 19.9%, 21.1%, and 16.1%, respectively. The ratios of photodegradation to the mass loss of NPX, DCF, and APAP decreased by 5.0%, 5.7%, and 0.9%, respectively. An ice cover as the predominant factor could affect the distribution and photodegradation of drugs in the surface water. This study can close a knowledge gap regarding the transport and transformation of NSAIDs in the ice-water system and provide fresh insights into the behaviors and fate of emerging contaminants in seasonally ice-covered waters.

Photodegradation of cytostatic drugs by g-C3N4: Synthesis, properties and performance fitted by selecting the appropriate precursor

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) was synthetized by a one-step thermal method from different N-rich precursors, namely melamine, dicyandiamide, urea, thiourea and cyanamide. The structure, optical and physicochemical properties of g-C3N4 materials were studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman spectroscopy, among others. Both melamine and dicyandiamide provided a less porous structure composed by large flake sheets, whereas urea and thiourea favoured g-C3N4 composed by small flat sheets and wrinkles with a larger porosity. The establishment of more condensed g-C3N4 networks with a reduced band gap was also evidenced for melamine and dicyandiamide precursors, while urea favoured less condensed melem or melon structures. The photoactivity of the different g-C3N4 was assessed for the removal of an aqueous solution containing 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), cyclophosphamide (CP) or a mixture of both cytostatic drugs, under near UV-Vis and solar-LED irradiations. The best performing photocatalysts under near UV-Vis irradiation, were those prepared from melamine (kapp = 14.6 × 10–2 min–1 for 5-FU) and thiourea (kapp = 2.5 × 10–2 min–1 for CP), while urea was the most active under solar-LED irradiation (kapp = 0.183 × 10–2 min–1 for 5-FU). In addition, CP was more resistant to be degraded than 5-FU, and a competitive effect for the generated hydroxyl radicals was evidenced when both pollutant molecules were in the same solution. The photoactivity of g-C3N4 materials was justified by the combination of various effects: (i) surface area, (ii) well-connected and condensed g-C3N4 structures and (iii) high surface C/N ratios with nitrogen vacancies.

Visible-light-enhanced photocatalytic activity of BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 composite photocatalysts for photodegradation of tetracycline hydrochloride

A polyacrylamide gel method combined with low temperature sintering technology was developed for fabrication of BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 composite photocatalysts, which exhibits excellent photocatalytic activity for the degradation of tetracycline hydrochloride (TC-HCl) under simulated sunlight irradiation. The effects of BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 mass percentages, drug concentrations and pH values on the photocatalytic activity of BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 composite photocatalysts were investigated. The optimum BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 mass percentage, drug concentration and pH value are 5 wt%, 50 mg/L, and 6.77, respectively. The maximum photocatalytic degradation rate of BaTiO3/(5 wt%) γ-Al2O3 composite photocatalysts for the degradation of TC-HCl was approximately 16.81 times that of γ-Al2O3. The trapping experiments and reactive oxygen species production experiments proved that reactive hole and hydroxyl radical played major role in drug degradation. The photocatalytic activity enhancement of the BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 composite photocatalysts came from the defect states in alumina and the interfacial defects between barium titanate and alumina and the high charge transfer and separation efficiency, which resulted from the type II band arrangement structure of BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3. The above results reveal that there is a significant potential application for the BaTiO3/γ-Al2O3 composite as a photocatalyst in the photo-degradation of drugs under simulated sunlight irradiation.

Photo-Degradation of dyes and drugs using aloe vera synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles – A review

Environmental pollution due to industries like textile industries, paper and pulp industries, pharmaceutical industries and so on is a major problem which is increasing day by day. Effluents like dyes and drugs releases from industries can be degraded by various methods and out of which photocatalytic degradation using nanoparticles have been reported by different researchers. Different nanoparticles like titanium dioxide, molybdenum oxide, iron oxide, zinc oxide etc can be used in photocatalytic degradation and their synthesis can be done by various methods like chemical, physical and biological. In this review article photocatalytic activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by green method using aloe vera is reported. Investigations and findings of this work have been highlighted. Zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using aloe vera were characterized by analytical techniques such as UV–vis spectroscopy which showed maximum absorption of zinc oxide nanoparticles occurs around 350 nm, FTIR shown bands of Zn-O stretching and other groups like CO, CC, CN etc. present in aloe vera, particle size was calculated by SEM, EDX confirmed the elemental composition of nanoparticles and crystalline nature of zinc oxide nanoparticles analyzed by XR.D spectrum. This study also shows the degradation of dyes and drugs by zinc oxide nanoparticles done by researchers like Malachite greencan be degraded in 90 min, basic violet 3 can be degraded in 150 min, Amoxicillin can be degraded in 120 min.

Fabrication of high visible light active LaFeO3/Cl-g-C3N4/RGO heterojunction for solar assisted photo-degradation of aceclofenac

The designing of semiconductor based heterojunction has proved to be an effective strategy for developing more efficient photo-catalyst than single component photo-catalyst. Herein, we report the laboratory scale fabrication of a novel LaFeO3/Cl-g-C3N4/RGO (LCCR) heterojunction with enormous photocatalytic activity. The prepared nano-composite has been characterized using X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The LaFeO3/Cl-g-C3N4/RGO (LCCR) nano-heterojunction exhibits excellent photocatalytic activity due to its reduced charge recombination rate. The photocatalytic potential of LCCR was tested for the photo degradation of aceclofenac drug as model pollutant. LCCR with an optimum dosage amount 200 mgL−1 has shown highest degradation of 96.4 % within 90 min of solar light exposure. Various operational parameters such as effect of pH, photocatalyst dosage, pollutant concentration and various ions has been investigated. The photo-degradation outcomes of LCCR nano-composite have been examined in terms of reaction kinetics, active radical identification experiments, high resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) analysis. The photo-degradation experiment followed the pseudo first order kinetics with high rate constant k1 = 0.0461 min−1 and results for TOC and COD analysis shows that 53.2 % of TOC was removed, whereas COD was decreased to 22.4 %. This work shows promising photo-catalyst for treating pharmaceutical effluents.

Encapsulation-Led Adsorption of Neutral Dyes and Complete Photodegradation of Cationic Dyes and Antipsychotic Drugs by Lanthanide-Based Macrocycles.

Molecular architectures offering large cavities can accommodate guest molecules, while their compositional engineering allows tunability of the band gap to support photocatalysis using visible light. In this work, two lanthanide (Ln)-based macrocycles, synthesized using a cobalt-based metalloligand and offering large rectangular cavities, exhibited selective adsorption of neutral dyes over both anionic and cationic dyes. Both Ln macrocycles illustrated complete photodegradation of cationic dyes using visible light without the use of any oxidant. Both Ln macrocycles exhibited complete photodegradation of not only cationic dyes but also a few phenothiazine-based antipsychotic drugs. Photocatalysis involved the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was corroborated with the band gap of two Ln macrocycles. These results were supported by radical scavenger studies and the quantitative estimation of superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. Complete photodegradation of both dyes and drugs was confirmed by spectral studies, while the generation of CO2 and N2 gases was established by gas chromatography. Importantly, Ln macrocycles were able to distinguish between the neutral dyes that were quantitatively adsorbed and the cationic dyes/drugs that were completely photodegraded.

Photocatalytic fuel cell for simultaneous antibiotic wastewater treatment and electricity production by anatase TiO2 nanoparticles anchored on Ni foam

Photocatalytic fuel cell (PFC) holds great potential for the sustainable production of electricity and degradation of organic pollutants for solving global energy and environmental problems. However, the efficient photodegradation of organic dyes and antibiotic drugs, such as ciprofloxacin (CIP) and methylene blue (MB), remains challenging. Aiming at improving the separation efficiency of hole and electron for electricity generation in the PFC system, TiO2-NPs@NF-x photoanode was fabricated by a cost-effective and laborsaving hydrothermal approach. The as-fabricated photoanode demonstrated abundant active sites, enhanced light harvesting capacity and photogenerated charge carrier separation. At a CIP-HCl concentration of 10 mg/L and pH value of about 7, 85% of CIP-HCl can be efficiently removed after 3 h irradiation by 300 W Xe lamp. TiO2-NPs@NF-20 photoelectrode based PFC system exhibited an impressed ability to simultaneously degrade ciprofloxacin and generate electricity under light irradiation with an open circuit voltage of 1.021 V, short circuit current density and maximum power density of 2.4 mA/cm2, 0.357 mW/cm2, respectively. This work provided a cost-effective method for the treatment of organic waste and generation of electrical power.

Algae mediated photodegradation of fluroquinolone antibiotic: Ofloxacin

Antibiotics are one of the most important pharmaceutical products and their excessive use generates significant adverse effectson the human environment. Their residues are harmful to the environment due to their potential hazard, toxicity and persistence. The indirect photodegradation of these residual antibiotics using algae as a potential photosensitizer provides a good low cost environmental solution. Herein, the photochemical behaviors of fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as ofloxacin, were evaluated in the presence of an algal solution. The result of proposed research work clearly indicates that the algae play a crucial role in the photodegradation of ofloxacin and also accelerate the rate of photodegradation. The effect of concentration and pH of the algal solution on the photochemical behavior of the ofloxacin showed that as the concentration of algae was increased the rate of the photodegradation of drug became faster.

Visualization of the photodegradation of a therapeutic drug by chemometric-assisted fluorescence spectroscopy.

The fluorescence spectral fingerprint, also known as the excitation-emission matrix (EEM), is used to assess and visualize therapeutic drug photodegradation in combination with chemometrics. Examination of EEM-parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) data showed that an individual component was easily separated from a mixture of photogenerated products of a heterocyclic pharmacophore, in this case, phenothiazine drugs (PTZs). Detailed investigations of both structure–EEM relationships and kinetics revealed that the components extracted from EEM–PARAFAC could be quantitatively attributed to such photogenerated products as phenothiazine sulfoxide and carbazole derivatives. EEM in combination with principal component analysis (PCA) could be used as a mapping tool to visualize information of the photodegradation process of PTZs. We also assessed the photostability of various types of PTZs containing side chains by using validated EEM–PARAFAC methodology.

Photodegradation of Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: Stability Tests and Lipid Nanocarriers for Their Photoprotection.

The present paper provides an updated overview of the methodologies applied in photodegradation studies of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Photostability tests, performed according to international standards, have clearly demonstrated the photolability of many drugs belonging to this class, observed during the preparation of commercial forms, administration or when dispersed in the environment. The photodegradation profile of these drugs is usually monitored by spectrophotometric or chromatographic techniques and in many studies the analytical data are processed by chemometric procedures. The application of multivariate analysis in the resolution of often-complex data sets makes it possible to estimate the pure spectra of the species involved in the degradation process and their concentration profiles. Given the wide use of these drugs, several pharmaceutical formulations have been investigated to improve their photostability in solution or gel, as well as the pharmacokinetic profile. The use of lipid nanocarriers as liposomes, niosomes or solid lipid nanoparticles has demonstrated to both minimize photodegradation and improve the controlled release of the entrapped drugs.

Fabrication and structural of gold/cerium nanoparticles on tin disulfide nanostructures and decorated on hyperbranched polyethyleneimine for photocatalysis, reduction, hydrogen production and antifungal activities

In this project, the Au and Ce co-doped SnS2 decoration on hyperbranched polyethyleneimine (Au/Ce/SnS2/HPEI) nanocomposites were prepared via wet/hydrothermal chemical method. Compared with pure SnS2 and co doped SnS2, Au/Ce/SnS2/HPEI nanocomposite indicated higher photo-degradation performance for the reduction of chromium (VI) under visible light irradiation. Therewith, Au/Ce/SnS2/HPEI nanocomposites was applied for photo-degradation of drug. The possible mechanism shows the superoxide anion radical (O2−) plays important role in in the removal of Cr(VI). The Au/Ce/SnS2/HPEI nanocomposites shows the best photocatalysis activity for water reduction. The prepared Au/Ce/SnS2/HPEI displayed excellent antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans fungi.