Phosphorylation Of BimEL Research Articles

Arsenic trioxide promotes ERK1/2-mediated phosphorylation and degradation of BIMEL to attenuate apoptosis in BEAS-2B cells

Inorganic arsenic is highly toxic, widely distributed in the human environment and may result in multisystem diseases and several types of cancers. The BCL-2-interacting mediator of cell death protein (BIM) is a key modulator of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Interestingly, in the present study, we found that arsenic trioxide (As2O3) decreased BIMEL levels in human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B and increased BIMEL levels in human lung carcinoma cell line A549 and mouse Sertoli cell line TM4. Mechanismly, the 26S proteasome inhibitors MG132 and bortezomib could effectively inhibit BIMEL degradation induced by As2O3 in BEAS-2B cells. As2O3 activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, but only the ERK1/2 MAPK inhibitor PD98059 blocked BIMEL degradation induced by As2O3. Furthermore, As2O3 induced-phosphorylation of BIMEL at multiple sites was inhibited by ERK1/2 MAPK inhibitor PD98059. Inhibition of As2O3-induced ERK1/2 MAPK phosphorylation increased the levels of BIMEL and cleaved-caspase-3 proteins and decreased BEAS-2B cell viability. As2O3 also markedly mitigated tunicamycin-induced apoptosis of BEAS-2B cells by increasing ERK1/2 phosphorylation and BIMEL degradation. Our results suggest that As2O3-induced activation of the ERK1/2 MAPK pathway increases phosphorylation of BIMEL and promotes BIMEL degradation, thereby alleviating the role of apoptosis in As2O3-induced cell death. This study provides new insights into how to maintain the survival of BEAS-2B cells before malignant transformation induced by high doses of As2O3.

The Central Role of MAPK-ERK Signaling in IL7-Dependent and IL7-Independent Steroid Resistance Reveals a Broad Application of MEK-Inhibitors Compared to JAK1/2-Inhibition in T-ALL

Introduction Poor prednisolone response in the induction phase of treatment is a risk-stratification marker in the current Dutch DCOG ALL-11 treatment protocol. Physiological or mutational activation of the IL7-receptor (IL7R) provokes steroid resistance in T-ALL. Moreover, relapsed T-ALL patients that harbor IL7R or RAS mutations are considered as an ultra-high-risk group with extremely poor outcome. Aim We studied the contribution of two key IL7R downstream pathways (STAT5B and MAPK-ERK respectively) to steroid resistance in order to optimize future treatment regimens. Results To date, IL7-dependent steroid resistance has been proposed to depend on IL7-induced JAK-STAT signaling and subsequent BCL2 upregulation. Here, we demonstrate that the transforming STATBN642H mutation does not impair steroid sensitivity despite a paradoxical upregulation of BCL2 and BCLXL following steroid treatment. We therefore hypothesized that other pathways contribute to IL7-dependent steroid resistance in T-ALL. By studying T-ALL PDX samples, we observed that physiological IL7-signaling can activate the MAPK-ERK pathway in IL7-dependent and IL7-independent steroid resistant PDX cells. Similar to mutational-driven MAPK-ERK signaling (e.g. by activating IL7R, JAK1 or NRAS mutations), IL7-induced MAPK-ERK signaling leads to the inactivation of the pro-apoptotic protein BIM by inhibitory phosphorylation of both BIM-EL and BIM-L isoforms. By mass spectrometry, we observe that phosphorylated BIM specifically decreases its physical interaction with Aurora kinase A and Bcl-2 family members BMF, BCL2, BCLXL and MCL1, which alters the apoptotic threshold and effectuates steroid resistance. The JAK1/2-inhibitor ruxolitinib and MEK-inhibitor selumetinib are considered for future basket-treatment protocols in IL7R/JAK-STAT-activated or MAPK-ERK-activated leukemias respectively. We demonstrate that both ruxolitinib and selumetinib prevent IL7-induced MAPK-ERK signaling in T-ALL PDX cells. Moreover, ruxolitinib and selumetinib abolish BIM phosphorylation in mutant JAK1-overexpressing SUPT-1 cells, which restores the binding of BIM to BCL2, BCLXL and MCL1. Only selumetinib restores the function of BIM in wild type or mutant NRAS overexpressing SUPT-1 cells, indicating that ruxolitinib only blocks MAPK-ERK signaling in the context of 'upstream' (e.g. mutant IL7R/JAK1 or IL7-induced) pathway activation. Surprisingly, none of our 46 PDX samples respond to ruxolitinib treatment in the absence of IL7, while the majority of these samples demonstrate a robust response towards MEK-inhibition. IL7-dependent steroid resistant PDX samples do respond to ruxolitinib treatment in the presence of IL7, while IL7 exposed IL7-independent steroid resistant PDX samples remain unresponsive to ruxolitinib. We therefore conclude that the therapeutic effect of ruxolitinib is dependent on an IL7-protective effect, limiting its therapeutic application to a selective subset of T-ALL patients. When we combine prednisolone treatment with selumetinib or ruxolitinib, we observe that ruxolitinib only synergizes with prednisolone in IL7-dependent steroid resistant PDX samples in the presence of IL7. Importantly, combination treatment with prednisolone and selumetinib acts highly synergistic in IL7-dependent and IL7-independent steroid resistant samples in the presence and absence of IL7. Conclusion and clinical relevance In addition to described JAK-STAT and PI3K-AKT signaling, our study demonstrates that IL7-induced signaling activates the MAPK-ERK signaling pathway, which actively contributes to IL7-dependent steroid resistance. We demonstrate the central importance of MAPK-ERK signaling in T-ALL, whereas all T-ALL PDX samples tested highly benefit from combined prednisolone and selumetinib treatment. Ruxolitinib only acts synergistically with steroids in the context of IL7-dependent steroid resistance. Moreover, our data proposes that this synergistic effect may (in part) depend on the anti-MAPK-ERK effect downstream of JAK1/2-inhibition. Combined, our study strongly supports the enrollment of T-ALL patients in the current phase I/II SeluDex trial (NCT03705507), and contributes to the optimization and stratification of newly designed T-ALL treatment regimens. Disclosures Bourquin: Servier: Other: Travel Support. Vormoor:AstraZeneca: Research Funding.

Dynamics and Regulations of BimEL Ser65 and Thr112 Phosphorylation in Porcine Granulosa Cells during Follicular Atresia.

BimEL protein is involved in follicular atresia by regulating granulosa cell apoptosis, but the dynamic changes of BimEL phosphorylation during follicular atresia are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to explore the changes of key BimEL phosphorylation sites and their upstream regulatory pathways. First, the levels of BimEL-Ser65 and BimEL-Thr112 phosphorylation (p-BimEL-S65, p-BimEL-T112) in granulosa cells (GC) from healthy (H), slightly-atretic (SA), and atretic (A) follicles and in cultured GC after different treatments were detected by Western blotting. Next, the effects of the corresponding site mutations of BIM on apoptosis of GC were investigated. Finally, the pathways of two phosphorylation sites were investigated by kinase inhibitors. The results revealed that p-BimEL-S65 levels were higher in GC from H than SA and A, whereas p-BimEL-T112 was reversed. The prosurvival factors like FSH and IGF-1 upregulated the level of p-BimEL-S65, while the proapoptotic factor, heat stress, increased the level of p-BimEL-T112 in cultured GC. Compared with the overexpression of wild BimEL, the apoptotic rate of the GC overexpressed BimEL-S65A (replace Ser65 with Ala) mutant was significantly higher, but the apoptotic rate of the cells overexpressing BimEL-T112A did not differ. In addition, inhibition of the ERK1/2 or JNK pathway by specific inhibitors reduced the levels of p-BimEL-S65 and p-BimEL-T112. In conclusion, the levels of p-BimEL-S65 and p-BimEL-T112 were reversed during follicular atresia. Prosurvival factors promote p-BimEL-S65 levels via ERK1/2 to inhibit GC apoptosis, whereas proapoptotic factor upregulates the level of p-BimEL-T112 via JNK to induce GC apoptosis.

Insulin mitigates apoptosis of porcine follicular granulosa cells by downregulating BimEL

Follicular growth or atresia is governed by the survival and apoptosis of granulosa cells. Increasing evidence shows that follicle growth is influenced by energy intake, which is positively related to insulin levels. However, the function of insulin in granulosa cell survival is poorly understood. This study focused on the effects of insulin on porcine medium follicle granulosa cell survival. In the present study, we showed that insulin markedly mitigated the apoptosis of porcine granulosa cells following serum starvation. Moreover, insulin activated the PI3K/Akt pathway to downregulate bim mRNA expression and simultaneously promoted the phosphorylation of BimEL through activating ERK 1/2, both of which reduced the level of BimEL. The results demonstrate that insulin protected the granulosa cells against apoptosis by reducing levels of the pro-apoptotic protein BimEL. However, the concentration of insulin (1 μg/ml) was relatively high. High levels of insulin partly combined with the IGF-1 receptor to play its roles in granulosa cells. This experiment provides new insight into the role of insulin in granulosa cells and sheds light on nutrition-reproduction interactions.

EglN3 hydroxylase stabilizes BIM-EL linking VHL type 2C mutations to pheochromocytoma pathogenesis and chemotherapy resistance

Despite the discovery of the oxygen-sensitive regulation of HIFα by the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) protein, the mechanisms underlying the complex genotype/phenotype correlations in VHL disease remain unknown. Some germline VHL mutations cause familial pheochromocytoma and encode proteins that preserve their ability to down-regulate HIFα. While type 1, 2A, and 2B VHL mutants are defective in regulating HIFα, type 2C mutants encode proteins that preserve their ability to down-regulate HIFα. Here, we identified an oxygen-sensitive function of VHL that is abolished by VHL type 2C mutations. We found that BIM-EL, a proapoptotic BH3-only protein, is hydroxylated by EglN3 and subsequently bound by VHL. VHL mutants fail to bind hydroxylated BIM-EL, regardless of whether they have the ability to bind hydroxylated HIFα or not. VHL binding inhibits BIM-EL phosphorylation by extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) on serine 69. This causes BIM-EL to escape from proteasomal degradation, allowing it to enhance EglN3-induced apoptosis. BIM-EL was rapidly degraded in cells lacking wild-type VHL or in which EglN3 was inactivated genetically or by lack of oxygen, leading to enhanced cell survival and chemotherapy resistance. Combination therapy using ERK inhibitors, however, resensitizes VHL- and EglN3-deficient cells that are otherwise cisplatin-resistant.

Abstract 3318: A critical role for c-Jun N-terminal kinase in autophagy and cell survival of breast cancer cells

Antiestrogen resistance is the major impediment to the eradication of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer. Approximately 30% of ER+ breast tumors initially responsive to antiestrogen therapy will acquire resistance. One approach to reducing the occurrence of acquired antiestrogen resistance is to identify and target key signaling nodes that specifically attenuate the ability of antiestrogens to kill cancer cells. Toward this goal, we identified MEK/MAPK1/2 as a key molecular target based on the general inability of antiestrogens to effectively block MEK1/MAPK1/2-mediated phosphorylation of BimEL in breast cancer cells. BimEL is a pro-apoptotic member of the BH3 family of proteins that is inactivated (degraded by the proteasome) when phosphorylated by MAPK1/2. The combination of an antiestrogen and MEK1 inhibitor robustly-induced BimEL-dependent breast cancer cell apoptosis (Periyasamy-Thandavan et al., 2012). However, a subpopulation of breast cancer cells survive this combined treatment via an autophagy-dependent mechanism. Based on the key role of JNK in regulating autophagy in cancer cells via BimEL phosphorylation, we hypothesized that JNK was a key effector of autophagy in breast cancer cells surviving antiestrogen treatment when used as a single agent or in combination with a MEK inhibitor. To test this hypothesis, we utilized the selective JNK inhibitor SP600125 as a single agent or in combination with estradiol (E2), 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT), and/or U0126 (a selective MEK1 inhibitor). Treatments were conducted with the antiestrogen-sensitive cell lines MCF-7 and T-47D and the antiestrogen resistant cell line TR5, previously derived in our laboratory by a step-wise 4-OHT selection. Effects on cell death (determination of apoptosis) and autophagy (determination of autophagy levels and flux) were evaluated for the various hormonal treatments conducted in the presence or absence of JNK inhibition. These studies showed that: (1) targeting JNK in antiestrogen sensitive breast cancer cells induces apoptosis with caspase-dependent cleavage of PARP as a surrogate marker of apoptosis; (2) JNK activity is elevated in antiestrogen resistant TR5 cells and JNK inhibition induces TR5 cell death; and (3) antiestrogen sensitive and resistant breast cancer cells dying as a result of JNK inhibition can show extensive cytosolic vacuolization with the autophagy protein LC3 (ATG8) localized to the aberrant vacuoles. Overall, our results support the conclusion that JNK plays a key autophagy-dependent survival role in breast cancer cells. Ongoing studies aim to identify the specific JNK protein(s) that disrupt autophagy and enhance death of breast cancer cells toward the goal of identifying specific molecular targets to block autophagy in breast cancer cells. Citation Format: Rohit Munagala, Carol Joseph, Annie Liu, Kebin Liu, Muthusamy Thangaraju, Patricia V. Schoenlein. A critical role for c-Jun N-terminal kinase in autophagy and cell survival of breast cancer cells [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 3318. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-3318

Repositioning of amprenavir as a novel extracellular signal-regulated kinase-2 inhibitor and apoptosis inducer in MCF-7 human breast cancer.

Computational drug repositioning by virtually screening existing drugs for additional therapeutic usage could efficiently accelerate anticancer drug discovery. Herein, a library of 1447Food and Drug Administration(FDA)-approved small molecule drugs was screened insilico for inhibitors of extracellular signal-regulated kinase2(ERK2). Then, invitro kinase assay demonstrated amprenavir, a HIV-1 protease inhibitor, as a potential kinase inhibitor of ERK2. The invivo kinase assay indicated that amprenavir could inhibit ERK2-mediated phosphorylation of BimEL at Ser69. Amprenavir could suppress this phosphorylation in MCF-7 cells, which may further facilitate the association of BimEL with several pro-survival molecules. Additionally, inhibition of ERK2-BimEL signaling pathway by amprenavir could contribute to its anti-proliferative and apoptosis-inducing activity in MCF-7 cells. Finally, invivo tumor growth and immunohistochemical studies confirmed that amprenavir remarkably suppressed tumor proliferation and induce apoptosis in MCF-7 xenografts. Taken together, amprenavir can effectively inhibit the kinase activity of ERK2, and thus induces apoptosis and inhibits tumor growth in human MCF-7 cancer cells both invitro and invivo, making amprenavir a promising candidate for future anticancer therapeutics.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 rescues R28 retinal neurons from apoptotic death through ERK-mediated BimEL phosphorylation independent of Akt

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) can provide long-term neurotrophic support by activation of Akt, inhibition of FoxO nuclear localization and suppression of Bim gene transcription in multiple neuronal systems. However, MEK/ERK activation can also promote neuron survival through phosphorylation of BimEL. We explored the contribution of the PI3K/Akt/FoxO and MEK/ERK/BimEL pathways in IGF-1 stimulated survival after serum deprivation (SD) of R28 cells differentiated to model retinal neurons. IGF-1 caused rapid activation of Akt leading to FoxO1/3-T32/T24 phosphorylation, and prevented FoxO1/3 nuclear translocation and Bim mRNA upregulation in response to SD. IGF-1 also caused MAPK/MEK pathway activation as indicated by ERK1/2-T202/Y204 and Bim-S65 phosphorylation. Overexpression of FoxO1 increased Bim mRNA expression and amplified the apoptotic response to SD without shifting the serum response curve. Inhibition of Akt activation with LY294002 or by Rictor knockdown did not block the protective effect of IGF-1, while inhibition of MEK activity with PD98059 prevented Bim phosphorylation and blocked IGF-1 protection. In addition, knockdown of Bim expression was protective during SD, while co-silencing of FoxO1 and Fox03 expression had little effect. Thus, the PI3K/Akt/FoxO pathway was not essential for protection from SD-induced apoptosis by IGF-1 in R28 cells. Instead, IGF-1 protection was dependent on activation of the MEK/ERK pathway leading to BimEL phosphorylation, which is known to prevent Bax/Bak oligomerization and activation of the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. These studies demonstrate the requirement of the MEK/ERK pathway in a model of retinal neuron cell survival and highlight the cell specificity for IGF-1 signaling in this response.

Abstract 4672: Targeting MEK/MAPK1/2 in vivo to eradicate antiestrogen resistance

Abstract Tamoxifen (TAM), an antiestrogen and selective estrogen receptor modifier (SERM) has become a widely utilized therapeutic drug for treating ER+ breast cancer, however many cases develop TAM resistance. In previous in vitro studies, TAM combined with the selective Mitogen/Extracellular signal-regulated Kinase pathway (MEK) inhibitor U0126 (U) led to increased levels of the proapoptotic protein BimEL. This combined treatment was more effective at killing estrogen receptor expressing (ER+) breast cancer cells than either agent alone via a Bim-dependent mechanism [Periyasamy-Thandavan el al., Breast Cancer Res. 14(2), 2012]. In this study, we aimed to recapitulate the superior efficacy of this combined treatment strategy with the clinically relevant MEK inhibitor Selumetinib (SEL) using the TAM sensitive, ER+ MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. In addition, we utilized MCF7-TAM resistant cells (TR5), created in vitro through exposures to incremental increases in TAM concentration(100ng to 5.0μM). MCF-7 cells that were treated with TAM, SEL, U, or combination therapies in vitro demonstrated a similar efficacy between U and SEL with the lowest cell viability resulting from TAM plus U or SEL compared to TAM, U, or SEL as single agents. Western blot analysis of U- or SEL-treated MCF7 cells showed a similar robust upregulation of BimEL in the presence or absence of TAM. Comparison of the TR5 TAM resistant cells to parent MCF-7 cells showed elevated levels of active MAPK1/2 protein (p-MAPK) that mediated the phosphorylation and subsequent proteasomal degradation of BimEL. Importantly, inhibition of MEK/MAPK1/2 by SEL or U in TR5 cells in vitro significantly increased BimEL levels and TAM induced apoptosis as evidenced by increased levels of cleaved PARP and/or lamin A. In a pilot in vivo study, we further demonstrated that TR5 cells were highly tumorigenic with the xenografts being estrogen independent and insensitive to TAM inhibition. In contrast, the TR5 xenografts were sensitive to SEL when delivered in the presence or absence of TAM. Further, tissue analyzed from SEL-treated TR5 xenografts showed significantly higher levels of BimEL than tissue analyzed from TAM- or E2-treated xenografts. These initial studies provide strong data that MEK1/MAPK1/2 inhibition will be required in vivo to raise BimEL levels to negatively affect breast cancer growth. These studies also support the concept of combining SEL with antiestrogen treatment (as a combined adjuvant therapy) to reduce the emergence of antiestrogen resistant cells and to include SEL as part of a regimen to treat antiestrogen resistant breast cancer. Citation Format: Jason Conger, Matthew Manning, Kingsley Anosike, Ahmed Elsherbini, Brandon Ware, Emily Bass, Mathusamy Thangaraju, Darren Browning, Patricia V. Schoenlein. Targeting MEK/MAPK1/2 in vivo to eradicate antiestrogen resistance. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 107th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2016 Apr 16-20; New Orleans, LA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(14 Suppl):Abstract nr 4672.

Abstract 1268: Anoikis evasion in inflammatory breast cancer cells is mediated by Bim-EL sequestration

Abstract Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a rare and highly invasive type of breast cancer, and patients diagnosed with IBC often face a very poor prognosis. IBC is characterized by the lack of primary tumor formation and the rapid accumulation of cancerous epithelial cells in the dermal lymphatic vessels. Given that normal epithelial cells require attachment to the extracellular matrix (ECM) for survival, a comprehensive examination of the molecular mechanisms underlying IBC cell survival in the lymphatic vessels is of paramount importance to our understanding of IBC pathogenesis. Due to the inherent invasive nature of IBC cells, we hypothesized that IBC cells could evade detachment-induced apoptosis (anoikis), and rely on tightly regulated intracellular signaling pathways to do so. Here we demonstrate that in contrast to normal mammary epithelial cells, IBC cells robustly survive in ECM-detached conditions. ErbB2 and EGFR knockdown in KPL-4 and SUM149 cells, respectively, causes decreased colony growth in soft agar and increased caspase activation following ECM detachment, suggesting overexpression/hyperactivation of these oncogenes is vital for IBC evasion of anoikis. Downstream of ErbB2 and EGFR, ERK/MAPK signaling was found to protect cells from anoikis by phosphorylating Bim-EL at serine 59. This phosphorylation of Bim-EL results in a physical interaction between Bim-EL, LC8, and Beclin-1 and prevents Bim-EL from localizing to the mitochondria and promoting cell death. Mutation of the serine 59 site results in increased cell death and a diminished capacity to form a protein complex with LC8 and Beclin-1. Bim-EL knockdown also rescued ECM-detachment-induced death in IBC cells, suggesting Bim-EL is necessary for the induction of anoikis in IBC cells. Interestingly, Bim-EL levels were found to be elevated in ECM-detached IBC cells and present in a significant percentage of IBC patient samples, despite their evasion of anoikis. Therefore, the sequestration of Bim-EL away the mitochondria provides a compelling rationale for how IBC cells survive in the presence of high Bim-EL levels. Furthermore, this mechanism provides a unique and novel opportunity for chemotherapeutic approaches aimed at freeing the already elevated Bim-EL levels from sequestration to specifically induce cell death in IBC cells. Citation Format: Cassandra Buchheit, Brittany Angarola, Allison Steiner, Kelsey Weigel, Zachary Schafer. Anoikis evasion in inflammatory breast cancer cells is mediated by Bim-EL sequestration. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 1268. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-1268

Anoikis evasion in inflammatory breast cancer cells is mediated by Bim-EL sequestration.

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a rare and highly invasive type of breast cancer, and patients diagnosed with IBC often face a very poor prognosis. IBC is characterized by the lack of primary tumor formation and the rapid accumulation of cancerous epithelial cells in the dermal lymphatic vessels. Given that normal epithelial cells require attachment to the extracellular matrix (ECM) for survival, a comprehensive examination of the molecular mechanisms underlying IBC cell survival in the lymphatic vessels is of paramount importance to our understanding of IBC pathogenesis. Here we demonstrate that, in contrast to normal mammary epithelial cells, IBC cells evade ECM-detachment-induced apoptosis (anoikis). ErbB2 and EGFR knockdown in KPL-4 and SUM149 cells, respectively, causes decreased colony growth in soft agar and increased caspase activation following ECM detachment. ERK/MAPK signaling was found to operate downstream of ErbB2 and EGFR to protect cells from anoikis by facilitating the formation of a protein complex containing Bim-EL, LC8, and Beclin-1. This complex forms as a result of Bim-EL phosphorylation on serine 59, and thus Bim-EL cannot localize to the mitochondria and cause anoikis. These results reveal a novel mechanism that could be targeted with innovative therapeutics to induce anoikis in IBC cells.

Bcl-2 maintains the mitochondrial membrane potential, but fails to affect production of reactive oxygen species and endoplasmic reticulum stress, in sodium palmitate-induced β-cell death

Background. Sodium palmitate causes apoptosis of β-cells, and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 has been shown to counteract this event. However, the exact mechanisms that underlie palmitate-induced pancreatic β-cell apoptosis and through which pathway Bcl-2 executes the protective effect are still unclear.Methods. A stable Bcl-2-overexpressing RINm5F cell clone (BMG) and its negative control (B45) were exposed to palmitate for up to 8 h, and cell viability, mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and NF-κB activation were studied in time course experiments.Results. Palmitate exposure for 8 h resulted in increased cell death rates, and this event was partially counteracted by Bcl-2. Bcl-2 overexpression promoted in parallel also a delayed induction of GADD153/CHOP and a weaker phosphorylation of BimEL in palmitate-exposed cells. At earlier time points (2–4 h) palmitate exposure resulted in increased generation of ROS, a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), and a modest increase in the phosphorylation of eIF2α and IRE1α. BMG cells produced similar amounts of ROS and displayed the same eIF2α and IRE1α phosphorylation rates as B45 cells. However, the palmitate-induced dissipation of Δψm was partially counteracted by Bcl-2. In addition, basal NF-κB activity was increased in BMG cells.Conclusions. Our results indicate that Bcl-2 counteracts palmitate-induced β-cell death by maintaining mitochondrial membrane integrity and augmenting NF-κB activity, but not by affecting ROS production and ER stress.

BIMELis a key effector molecule in oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis in acute myeloid leukemia cells when combined with arsenic trioxide and buthionine sulfoximine

sBackgroundArsenic trioxide (ATO) is reported to be an effective therapeutic agent in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) through inducing apoptotic cell death. Buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), an oxidative stress pathway modulator, is suggested as a potential combination therapy for ATO-insensitive leukemia. However, the precise mechanism of BSO-mediated augmentation of ATO-induced apoptosis is not fully understood. In this study we compared the difference in cell death of HL60 leukemia cells treated with ATO/BSO and ATO alone, and investigated the detailed molecular mechanism of BSO-mediated augmentation of ATO-induced cell death.MethodsHL60 APL cells were used for the study. The activation and expression of a series of signal molecules were analyzed with immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting. Apoptotic cell death was detected with caspases and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase activation. Generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined using a redox-sensitive dye. Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization was observed with a confocal microscopy using NIR dye and cytochrome c release was determined with immunoblotting. Small interfering (si) RNA was used for inhibition of gene expression.ResultsHL60 cells became more susceptible to ATO in the presence of BSO. ATO/BSO-induced mitochondrial injury was accompanied by reduced mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, cytochrome c release and caspase activation. ATO/BSO-induced mitochondrial injury was inhibited by antioxidants. Addition of BSO induced phosphorylation of the pro-apoptotic BCL2 protein, BIMEL, and anti-apoptotic BCL2 protein, MCL1, in treated cells. Phosphorylated BIMEL was dissociated from MCL1 and interacted with BAX, followed by conformational change of BAX. Furthermore, the knockdown of BIMEL with small interfering RNA inhibited the augmentation of ATO-induced apoptosis by BSO.ConclusionsThe enhancing effect of BSO on ATO-induced cell death was characterized at the molecular level for clinical use. Addition of BSO induced mitochondrial injury-mediated apoptosis via the phosphorylation of BIMEL and MCL1, resulting in their dissociation and increased the interaction between BIMEL and BAX.

Bim vanishes in the light of a mitotic Aurora

Bim vanishes in the light of a mitotic Aurora

Apoptosis induced by the fungal pathogen gliotoxin requires a triple phosphorylation of Bim by JNK

We previously reported that gliotoxin (GT), the major virulence factor of the mold Aspergillus fumigatus causing invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised patients, induces apoptosis in a Bak-dependent manner. The signaling pathway leading to Bak activation and subsequent mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) is elusive. Here, we show that GT and the supernatant of A. fumigatus (but not its GT-defective mutant) activate the JNK pathway and require a co-operative JNK-mediated BimEL phosphorylation at three sites (S100, T112 and S114) to induce apoptosis in mouse fibroblasts, human bronchial and mouse alveolar epithelial cells. Cells (i) treated with the JNK inhibitor SP600125, (ii) deleted or knocked down for JNK1/2 or Bim or (iii) carrying the BimEL triple phosphomutant S100A/T112A/S114A instead of wild-type BimEL are similarly resistant to GT-induced apoptosis. Triple-phosphorylated BimEL is more stable, redistributes from a cytoskeletal to a membrane fraction, better interacts with Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL and more effectively activates Bak than the unphosphorylated mutant. These data indicate that JNK-mediated BimEL phosphorylation at S100, T112 and S114 constitutes a novel regulatory mechanism to activate Bim in response to apoptotic stimuli.

Suppression of PP2A is critical for protection of melanoma cells upon endoplasmic reticulum stress

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress triggers apoptosis by activating Bim in diverse types of cells, which involves dephosphorylation of BimEL by protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). However, melanoma cells are largely resistant to ER stress-induced apoptosis, suggesting that Bim activation is suppressed in melanoma cells undergoing ER stress. We show here that ER stress reduces PP2A activity leading to increased ERK activation and subsequent phosphorylation and proteasomal degradation of BimEL. Despite sustained upregulation of Bim at the transcriptional level, the BimEL protein expression was downregulated after an initial increase in melanoma cells subjected to pharmacological ER stress. This was mediated by increased activity of ERK, whereas the phosphatase activity of PP2A was reduced by ER stress in melanoma cells. The increase in ERK activation was, at least in part, due to reduced dephosphorylation by PP2A, which was associated with downregulation of the PP2A catalytic C subunit. Notably, instead of direct dephosphorylation of BimEL, PP2A inhibited its phosphorylation indirectly through dephosphorylation of ERK in melanoma cells. Taken together, these results identify downregualtion of PP2A activity as an important protective mechanism of melanoma cells against ER stress-induced apoptosis.

Mechanisms and clinical significance of BIM phosphorylation in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

AbstractB-cell receptor and microenvironment-derived signals promote accumulation of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells through increased proliferation and/or decreased apoptosis. In this study, we investigated the regulation of BIM, a proapoptotic BCL2-related protein, which is tightly regulated by phosphorylation. Surface IgM stimulation increased phosphorylation of 2 BIM isoforms, BIMEL and BIML, in a subset of CLL samples. In contrast, in normal B cells, anti-IgM triggered selective phosphorylation of BIMEL only. In CLL, anti-IgM–induced BIM phosphorylation correlated with unmutated IGHV gene status and with progressive disease. Strikingly, it was also associated with progressive disease within the mutated IGHV gene subset. BIM phosphorylation was dependent on MEK1/2 kinase activity, and we identified BIMEL serine 69, previously linked to pro-survival responses, as the major site of phosphorylation in CLL and in Ramos cells. BIMEL/BIML phosphorylation was associated with release of the pro-survival protein MCL1. Coculture of CLL cells with HK cells, a model of the CLL microenvironment, promoted CLL cell survival and was associated with MEK1/2 activation and BIMEL phosphorylation. Hence, BIM phosphorylation appears to play a key role in apoptosis regulation in CLL cells, potentially coordinating antigen and microenvironment-derived survival signals. Antigen-mediated effects on BIM may be an important determinant of clinical behavior.

Alternative splicing of Bim and Erk-mediated BimEL phosphorylation are dispensable for hematopoietic homeostasis in vivo

The pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Bim has a major role in hematopoietic homeostasis, particularly in the lymphocyte compartment, where it strongly affects immune function. The three major Bim isoforms (Bim(EL), Bim(L) and Bim(S)) are generated by alternative splicing. Bim(EL), the most abundant isoform, contains a unique sequence that has been reported to be the target of phosphorylation by several MAP kinases. In particular, Erk1/2 has been shown to interact with Bim(EL) through the DEF2 domain of Bim(EL) and specifically phosphorylate this isoform, thereby targeting it for ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. To examine the physiological importance of this mechanism of regulation and of the alternative splicing of Bim, we have generated several Bim knock-in mouse strains and analyzed their hematopoietic system. Although mutation in the DEF2 domain reduces Bim(EL) degradation in some circumstances, this mutation did not significantly increase Bim's pro-apoptotic activity in vivo nor impact on the homeostasis of the hematopoietic system. We also show that Bim(EL) and Bim(L) are interchangeable, and that Bim(S) is dispensable for the function of Bim. Hence, we conclude that physiological regulation of Bim relies on mechanisms independent of its alternative splicing or the Erk-dependent phosphorylation of Bim(EL).

Cyclin B1 interacts with the BH3-only protein Bim and mediates its phosphorylation by Cdk1 during mitosis

Protracted mitotic arrest leads to cell death; however, the molecular signals that link these distinct processes remain poorly understood. Here we report that the pro-apoptotic BH3-only family member Bim undergoes phosphorylation in K562 cells following treatment with the microtubule targeting agents Taxol and Nocodazole. The phosphorylation of two Bim isoforms, BimEL and BimL, at the mitochondria correlates with mitotic arrest and precedes cell death induced by Taxol. It was also found that Bim undergoes transient phosphorylation during normal mitosis in K562 cells. In addition, siRNA silencing of Bim reduces sensitivity to Taxol-induced cell death. The transition of K562 cells from mitosis to G1 results in the loss of BimEL and BimL phosphorylation and correlates with the degradation of cyclin B1. The Cdk1 inhibitors, RO-3306 and Purvalanol A, block Bim phosphorylation in mitotically arrested cells. Importantly, it was found that cyclin B1 co-immunoprecipitates with endogenous Bim in mitotic extracts. Furthermore, active recombinant Cdk1/cyclin B1 phosphorylates BimEL and BimL in vitro and Serine 44 on BimL has been identified as a Cdk1 phosphorylation site. Collectively, these results suggest that Cdk1/cyclin B1-dependent hyper-phosphorylation of Bim during prolonged mitotic arrest is an important cell death signal.

CDK1, not ERK1/2 or ERK5, is required for mitotic phosphorylation of BIMEL

The pro-apoptotic BH3 only protein BIMEL is phosphorylated by ERK1/2 and this targets it for proteasome-dependent degradation. A recent study has shown that ERK5, an ERK1/2-related MAPK, is activated during mitosis and phosphorylates BIMEL to promote cell survival. Here we show that treatment of cells with nocodazole or paclitaxel does cause phosphorylation of BIMEL, which is independent of ERK1/2. However, this was not due to ERK5-catalysed phosphorylation, since it was not reversed by the MEK5 inhibitor BIX02189 and proceeded normally in ERK5−/− fibroblasts. Indeed, although ERK5 is phosphorylated at multiple sites in the C-terminal transactivation region during mitosis, these do not include the activation-loop and ERK5 kinase activity does not increase. Mitotic phosphorylation of BIMEL occurred at proline-directed phospho-acceptor sites and was abolished by selective inhibition of CDK1. Furthermore, cyclin B1 was able to interact with BIM and cyclin B1/CDK1 complexes could phosphorylate BIM in vitro. Finally, we show that CDK1-dependent phosphorylation of BIMEL drives its polyubiquitylation and proteasome-dependent degradation to protect cells during mitotic arrest. These results provide new insights into the regulation of BIMEL and may be relevant to the therapeutic use of agents such as paclitaxel.