Phosphatidylserine Decarboxylase Research Articles

Biochemistry and Diseases Related to the Interconversion of Phosphatidylcholine, Phosphatidylethanolamine, and Phosphatidylserine.

Phospholipids are crucial structural components of cells. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine (both synthesized via the Kennedy pathway) and phosphatidylserine undergo interconversion. The dysregulation of this process is implicated in various diseases. This paper discusses the role of enzymes involved in the interconversion of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylserine, specifically phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT), phosphatidylserine synthases (PTDSS1 and PTDSS2), and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PISD), with a focus on their biochemical properties. Additionally, we describe the effects of the deregulation of these enzymes and their roles in both oncological and non-oncological diseases, including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), Alzheimer's disease, obesity, insulin resistance, and type II diabetes. Current knowledge on inhibitors of these enzymes as potential therapeutic agents is also reviewed, although in most cases, inhibitors are yet to be developed. The final section of this article presents a bioinformatic analysis using the GEPIA portal to explore the significance of these enzymes in cancer processes.

Unveiling the reaction mechanism of arginine decarboxylase in Aspergillus oryzae: Insights from crystal structure analysis

Agmatine, a natural polyamine also known as 4-aminobutyl-guanidine, is biosynthesized from arginine by decarboxylation. Aspergillus oryzae contains high amounts of agmatine, suggesting highly active arginine decarboxylase (ADC) in this organism. However, genome analysis revealed no ADC homolog in A. oryzae. A. oryzae strain RIB40 has six homologs of phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD), an enzyme that synthesizes phosphatidyl ethanolamine from phosphatidylserine. We previously discovered that one of these homologs, AO090102000327, encodes arginine decarboxylase, which we named ADC1. In the present study, we determined the crystal structures of ligand-free, arginine-treated, and agmatine-treated ADC1 each at 1.9–2.15 Å resolution. Each structure contained four ADC1 molecules (chains A–D) in the asymmetric unit of the cell. Each ADC1 molecule is a heterodimer consisting of the N-terminal region (Asn60–Gly441) and C-terminal region (Ser442–Thr482). In the ligand-free ADC1, the N-terminus of Ser442 was modified to form a pyruvoyl group. In the arginine-treated ADC1, arginine was converted to agmatine, with the pyruvoyl group covalently bound to agmatine by forming a Schiff base. The same structure was observed in agmatine-treated ADC1. These results indicate that ADC1 is a pyruvoyl-dependent decarboxylase and unveils the reaction mechanism of ADC from A. oryzae.

Membrane protein Bcsdr2 mediates biofilm integrity, hyphal growth and virulence of Botrytis cinerea

Grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea is a devastating disease responsible for large losses to agricultural production, and B. cinerea is a necrotrophic model fungal plant pathogen. Membrane proteins are important targets of fungicides and hotspots in the research and development of fungicide products. Wuyiencin affects the permeability and pathogenicity of B. cinerea, parallel reaction monitoring revealed the association of membrane protein Bcsdr2, and the bacteriostatic mechanism of wuyiencin was elucidated. In the present work, we generated and characterised ΔBcsdr2 deletion and complemented mutant B. cinerea strains. The ΔBcsdr2 deletion mutants exhibited biofilm loss and dissolution, and their functional activity was illustrated by reduced necrotic colonisation on strawberry and grape fruits. Targeted deletion of Bcsdr2 also blocked several phenotypic defects in aspects of mycelial growth, conidiation and virulence. All phenotypic defects were restored by targeted gene complementation. The roles of Bcsdr2 in biofilms and pathogenicity were also supported by quantitative real-time RT-PCR results showing that phosphatidylserine decarboxylase synthesis gene Bcpsd and chitin synthase gene BcCHSVII were downregulated in the early stages of infection for the ΔBcsdr2 strain. The results suggest that Bcsdr2 plays important roles in regulating various cellular processes in B. cinerea.Key points• The mechanism of wuyiencin inhibits B. cinerea is closely associated with membrane proteins.• Wuyiencin can downregulate the expression of the membrane protein Bcsdr2 in B. cinerea.• Bcsdr2 is involved in regulating B. cinerea virulence, growth and development.

Novel biallelic PISD missense variants cause spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia with disproportionate short stature and fragmented mitochondrial morphology.

Biallelic variants in PISD cause a phenotypic spectrum ranging from short stature with spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia (SEMD) to a multisystem disorder affecting eyes, ears, bones, and brain. PISD encodes the mitochondrial-localized enzyme phosphatidylserine decarboxylase. The PISD precursor is self-cleaved to generate a heteromeric mature enzyme that converts phosphatidylserine to the phospholipid phosphatidylethanolamine. We describe a 17-year-old male patient, born to unrelated healthy parents, with disproportionate short stature and SEMD, featuring platyspondyly, prominent epiphyses, and metaphyseal dysplasia. Trio genome sequencing revealed compound heterozygous PISD variants c.569C>T; p.(Ser190Leu) and c.799C>T; p.(His267Tyr) in the patient. Investigation of fibroblasts showed similar levels of the PISD precursor protein in both patient and control cells. However, patient cells had a significantly higher proportion of fragmented mitochondria compared to control cells cultured under basal condition and after treatment with 2-deoxyglucose that represses glycolysis and stimulates respiration. Structural data from the PISD orthologue in Escherichia coli suggest that the amino acid substitutions Ser190Leu and His267Tyr likely impair PISD's autoprocessing activity and/or phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis. Based on the data, we propose that the novel PISD p.(Ser190Leu) and p.(His267Tyr) variants likely act as hypomorphs and underlie the pure skeletal phenotype in the patient.

Sedentary behavior in mice induces metabolic inflexibility by suppressing skeletal muscle pyruvate metabolism.

Carbohydrates and lipids provide the majority of substrates to fuel mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Metabolic inflexibility, defined as an impaired ability to switch between these fuels, is implicated in a number of metabolic diseases. Here, we explore the mechanism by which physical inactivity promotes metabolic inflexibility in skeletal muscle. We developed a mouse model of sedentariness, small mouse cage (SMC), that, unlike other classic models of disuse in mice, faithfully recapitulated metabolic responses that occur in humans. Bioenergetic phenotyping of skeletal muscle mitochondria displayed metabolic inflexibility induced by physical inactivity, demonstrated by a reduction in pyruvate-stimulated respiration (JO2) in the absence of a change in palmitate-stimulated JO2. Pyruvate resistance in these mitochondria was likely driven by a decrease in phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) abundance in the mitochondrial membrane. Reduction in mitochondrial PE by heterozygous deletion of phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD) was sufficient to induce metabolic inflexibility measured at the whole-body level, as well as at the level of skeletal muscle mitochondria. Low mitochondrial PE in C2C12 myotubes was sufficient to increase glucose flux toward lactate. We further implicate that resistance to pyruvate metabolism is due to attenuated mitochondrial entry via mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC). These findings suggest a mechanism by which mitochondrial PE directly regulates MPC activity to modulate metabolic flexibility in mice.

Identification and enzymatic properties of arginine decarboxylase from Aspergillus oryzae.

Aspergillus oryzae spores, when sprinkled onto steamed rice and allowed to propagate, are referred to as rice "koji." Agmatine, a natural polyamine derived from arginine through the action of arginine decarboxylase (ADC), is abundantly produced by solid state-cultivated rice koji of A. oryzae RIB40 under low pH conditions, despite the apparent absence of ADC orthologs in its genome. Mass spectrometry imaging revealed that agmatine was accumulated inside rice koji at low pH conditions, where arginine was distributed. ADC activity was predominantly observed in substrate mycelia and minimally in aerial mycelia. Natural ADC was isolated from solid state-cultivated A. oryzae rice koji containing substrate mycelia, using ammonium sulfate fractionation, ion exchange, and gel-filtration chromatography. The purified protein was subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate poly-acrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and the detected peptide band was digested for identification by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The gene AO090102000327 of strain RIB40 was identified, previously annotated as phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD), and encoded a 483-amino acid peptide. Recombinant protein encoded by AO090102000327 was expressed in Escherichia coli cells cultivated at 20°C, resulting in the detection of 49 kDa and 5 kDa peptides. The protein exhibited pyruvoyl-dependent decarboxylase activity, favoring arginine over ornithine and showing no activity with phosphatidylserine. The gene was designated Ao-adc1. Ao-ADC1 expression in rice koji at pH 4-6 was confirmed through western blotting using the anti-Ao-ADC1 serum. These findings indicate that Ao-adc1 encodes arginine decarboxylase involved in agmatine production.IMPORTANCEGene AO090102000327 in A. oryzae RIB40, previously annotated as a PSD, falls into a distinct clade when examining the phylogenetic distribution of PSDs. Contrary to the initial PSD annotation, our analysis indicates that the protein encoded by AO090102000327 is expressed in the substrate mycelia area of solid state-cultivated A. oryzae rice koji and functions as an arginine decarboxylase (ADC). The clade to which Ao-ADC1 belongs includes three other Ao-ADC1 paralogs (AO090103000445, AO090701000800, and AO090701000802) that presumably encode ADC rather than PSDs. Regarding PSD, AO090012000733 and AO090005001124 were speculated to be nonmitochondrial and mitochondrial PSDs in A. oryzae RIB40, respectively.

Double‐stranded RNA uptake for the control of the maize pathogen Cercospora zeina

AbstractRNA interference (RNAi) using double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) against fungal pathogens is an emerging field of crop disease control. We aimed to evaluate RNAi against the fungus Cercospora zeina causing grey leaf spot (GLS) disease on maize. Orthologues of Dicer‐like 1, Dicer‐like 2, RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase and two copies of Argonaute were identified in the C. zeina genome and were shown to be expressed in vitro and in planta. Confocal microscopy showed that C. zeina took up exogenously applied dsRNA labelled with fluorescein. GFP‐transgenic C. zeina was treated with GFP‐specific dsRNA, and GFP mRNA expression and protein fluorescence were reduced by 57% and 61%, respectively. A Cz3‐dsRNA targeting C. zeina chitin synthase D (CHSD), phosphatidylserine decarboxylase proenzyme 3 (PSD3) and extracellular protein 2 (ECP2) was constructed. Treatment of C. zeina cultures with the Cz3‐dsRNA reduced CHSD expression by 47% and reduced cell viability by 34%. Maize leaves were inoculated with C. zeina conidia, and Cz3‐dsRNA was applied either with the conidia or 16 h later. GLS disease was significantly reduced compared to the water control for the 16 h post‐inoculation (hpi) treatment with Cz3‐dsRNA, but not for the GFP‐dsRNA specificity control or treatments at 0 hpi. We hypothesized that germination of C. zeina conidia was required for effective dsRNA‐mediated control, and this was borne out by microscopy observations that most of the C. zeina conidia (70%) germinated successfully on the maize leaf surface within 16 hpi. This work lays the groundwork for a dsRNA‐based fungicide against this foliar pathogen.

Luteolin alleviates depression-like behavior by modulating glycerophospholipid metabolism in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of LOD rats.

Late-onset depression (LOD) is defined as primary depression that first manifests after the age of 65. Luteolin (LUT) is a natural flavonoid that has shown promising antidepressant effects and improvement in neurological function in previous studies. In this study, we utilized UPLC-MS/MS non-targeted metabolomics techniques, along with molecular docking technology and experimental validation, to explore the mechanism of LUT in treating LOD from a metabolomics perspective. The behavioral results of our study demonstrate that LUT significantly ameliorated anxiety and depression-like behaviors while enhancing cognitive function in LOD rats. Metabolomic analysis revealed that the effects of LUT on LOD rats were primarily mediated through the glycerophospholipid metabolic pathway in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. The levels of key lipid metabolites, phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylcholine (PC), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), in the glycerophospholipid metabolic pathway were significantly altered by LUT treatment, with PC and PE showing significant correlations with behavioral indices. Molecular docking analysis indicated that LUT had strong binding activity with phosphatidylserine synthase 1 (PTDSS1), phosphatidylserine synthase 2 (PTDSS2), and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PISD), which are involved in the transformation and synthesis of PC, PE, and PS. Lastly, our study explored the reasons for the opposing trends of PC, PE, and PS in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex from the perspective of autophagy, which may be attributable to the bidirectional regulation of autophagy in distinct brain regions. Our results revealed significant alterations in the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathways in both the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of LOD rats. Moreover, LUT appears to regulate autophagy disorders by specifically modulating glycerophospholipid metabolism in different brain regions of LOD rats, consequently alleviating depression-like behavior in these animals.

Phosphatidylserine decarboxylase downregulation in uric acid‑induced hepatic mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis.

The molecular mechanisms underlying uric acid (UA)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis have not yet been elucidated. Herein, we investigated underlying mechanisms of UA in the development of mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis. We analyzed blood samples of individuals with normal UA levels and patients with hyperuricemia. Results showed that patients with hyperuricemia had significantly elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, which may indicate liver or mitochondrial damage in patients with hyperuricemia. Subsequently, lipidomic analysis of mouse liver tissue mitochondria and human liver L02 cell mitochondria was performed. Compared with control group levels, high UA increased mitochondrial phosphatidylserine (PS) and decreased mitochondrial phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) levels, whereas the expression of mitochondrial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PISD) that mediates PS and PE conversion was downregulated. High UA levels also inhibited signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 （STAT3） phosphorylation as well as mitochondrial respiration, while inducing apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro. Treatment with allopurinol, overexpression of PISD, and lyso-PE (LPE) administration significantly attenuated the three above-described effects in vitro. In conclusion, UA may induce mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis through mitochondrial PISD downregulation. This study provides a new perspective on liver damage caused by hyperuricemia.

PCBP1 protects bladder cancer cells from mitochondria injury and ferroptosis by inducing LACTB mRNA degradation.

Although Poly C Binding Protein 1 (PCBP1) affects cellular ferroptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction, the mechanisms by which PCBP1 regulates bladder cancer (BC) cell functions are unknown. In this study, two BC cell lines (T24 and UMUC3) were treated with different doses of ferroptosis inducer erastin to analyze the effect of PCBP1. Online databases (RPISeq and CatRAPID) were used to predict the possible direct interaction between PCBP1 protein and serine β-lactamase-like protein (LACTB) mRNA,which was further validated via RNA pull-down, RNA immunoprecipitation, and luciferase reporter assays. Mitochondria injury and ferroptosis were evaluated using CCK-8 assay, TUNEL staining, flow cytometry, corresponding kits, and JC-1 staining. In vivo experiments were conducted using tumor xenograft models. Quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to detect transcript expression levels, while protein levels were analyzed using western blot and immunohistochemistry. PCBP1 expression was significantly upregulated in BC tissues and cell lines. Also, PCBP1 knockdown increased erastin-mediated ferroptosis in T24 and UMUC3 cells, while PCBP1 overexpression decreased erastin-mediated ferroptosis in T24 and UMUC3 cells. Mechanistic results showed that LACTB mRNA is a novel PCBP1-binding transcript. LACTB upregulation promoted erastin-induced ferroptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, LACTB overexpression reversed PCBP1-mediated ferroptosis protection, including decreased ROS and enhanced mitochondrial function, which were further alleviated after phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PISD) overexpression. Moreover, PCBP1 silencing significantly enhanced tumor inhibition effect of sulfasalazine in xenograft mice transplanted with T24 and UMUC3 cells, leading to LACTB upregulation and PISD downregulation. In conclusion, PCBP1 protects BC cells against mitochondria injury and ferroptosis via LACTB/PISD axis.

Doxorubicin inhibits phosphatidylserine decarboxylase and confers broad-spectrum antifungal activity.

As phospholipids of cell membranes, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) play crucial roles in glycerophospholipid metabolism. Broadly, some phospholipid biosynthesis enzymes serve as potential fungicide targets. Therefore, revealing the functions and mechanism of PE biosynthesis in plant pathogens would provide potential targets for crop disease control. We performed analyses including phenotypic characterizations, lipidomics, enzyme activity, site-directed mutagenesis, and chemical inhibition assays to study the function of PS decarboxylase-encoding gene MoPSD2 in rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. The Mopsd2 mutant was defective in development, lipid metabolism, and plant infection. The PS level increased while PE decreased in Mopsd2, consistent with the enzyme activity. Furthermore, chemical doxorubicin inhibited the enzyme activity of MoPsd2 and showed antifungal activity against 10 phytopathogenic fungi including M. oryzae and reduced disease severity of two crop diseases in the field. Three predicted doxorubicin-interacting residues are important for MoPsd2 functions. Our study demonstrates that MoPsd2 is involved in de novo PE biosynthesis and contributes to the development and plant infection of M. oryzae and that doxorubicin shows broad-spectrum antifungal activity as a fungicide candidate. The study also implicates that bacterium Streptomyces peucetius, which biosynthesizes doxorubicin, could be potentially used as an eco-friendly biocontrol agent.

Maturation of the malarial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase is mediated by high affinity binding to anionic phospholipids

Decarboxylation of phosphatidylserine (PS) to form phosphatidylethanolamine by PS decarboxylases (PSDs) is an essential process in most eukaryotes. Processing of a malarial PSD proenzyme into its active alpha and beta subunits is by an autoendoproteolytic mechanism regulated by anionic phospholipids, with PS serving as an activator and phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidic acid acting as inhibitors. The biophysical mechanism underlying this regulation remains unknown. We used solid phase lipid binding, liposome-binding assays, and surface plasmon resonance to examine the binding specificity of a processing-deficient Plasmodium PSD (PkPSDS308A) mutant enzyme and demonstrated that the PSD proenzyme binds strongly to PS and PG but not to phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine. The equilibrium dissociation constants (Kd) of PkPSD with PS and PG were 80.4nM and 66.4nM, respectively. The interaction of PSD with PS is inhibited by calcium, suggesting that the binding mechanism involves ionic interactions. Invitro processing of WT PkPSD proenzyme was also inhibited by calcium, consistent with the conclusion that PS binding to PkPSD through ionic interactions is required for the proenzyme processing. Peptide mapping identified polybasic amino acid motifs in the proenzyme responsible for binding to PS. Altogether, the data demonstrate that malarial PSD maturation is regulated through a strong physical association between PkPSD proenzyme and anionic lipids. Inhibition of the specific interaction between the proenzyme and the lipids can provide a novel mechanism to disrupt PSD enzyme activity, which has been suggested as a target for antimicrobials, and anticancer therapies.

Mitochondrial phosphatidylethanolamine modulates UCP1 to promote brown adipose thermogenesis.

Thermogenesis by uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) is one of the primary mechanisms by which brown adipose tissue (BAT) increases energy expenditure. UCP1 resides in the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), where it dissipates membrane potential independent of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase. Here, we provide evidence that phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) modulates UCP1-dependent proton conductance across the IMM to modulate thermogenesis. Mitochondrial lipidomic analyses revealed PE as a signature molecule whose abundance bidirectionally responds to changes in thermogenic burden. Reduction in mitochondrial PE by deletion of phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD) made mice cold intolerant and insensitive to β3 adrenergic receptor agonist-induced increase in whole-body oxygen consumption. High-resolution respirometry and fluorometry of BAT mitochondria showed that loss of mitochondrial PE specifically lowers UCP1-dependent respiration without compromising electron transfer efficiency or ATP synthesis. These findings were confirmed by a reduction in UCP1 proton current in PE-deficient mitoplasts. Thus, PE performs a previously unknown role as a temperature-responsive rheostat that regulates UCP1-dependent thermogenesis.

Phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase ameliorates mitochondrial function and apoptosis in hepatocytes in T2DM in vitro

Liver function indicators are often impaired in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), who present higher concentrations of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase than individuals without diabetes. However, the mechanism of liver injury in patients with T2DM has not been clearly elucidated. In this study, we performed a lipidomics analysis on the liver of T2DM mice, and we found that phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) levels were low in T2DM, along with an increase in diglyceride, which may be due to a decrease in the levels of phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase (Pcyt2), thus likely affecting the de novo synthesis of PE. The phosphatidylserine decarboxylase pathway did not change significantly in the T2DM model, although both pathways are critical sources of PE. Supplementation with CDP-ethanolamine (CDP-etn) to increase the production of PE from the CDP-etn pathway reversed high glucose and FFA (HG&FFA)-induced mitochondrial damage including increased apoptosis, decreased ATP synthesis, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, and increased reactive oxygen species, whereas supplementation with lysophosphatidylethanolamine, which can increase PE production in the phosphatidylserine decarboxylase pathway, did not. Additionally, we found that overexpression of PCYT2 significantly ameliorated ATP synthesis and abnormal mitochondrial morphology induced by HG&FFA. Finally, the BAX/Bcl-2/caspase3 apoptosis pathway was activated in hepatocytes of the T2DM model, which could also be reversed by CDP-etn supplements and PCYT2 overexpression. In summary, in the liver of T2DM mice, Pcyt2 reduction may lead to a decrease in the levels of PE, whereas CDP-etn supplementation and PCYT2 overexpression ameliorate partial mitochondrial function and apoptosis in HG&FFA-stimulated L02 cells.

Abstract 2683: Regulation of malarial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase proenzyme processing by phospholipids

Abstract 2683: Regulation of malarial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase proenzyme processing by phospholipids

Two Different Phospholipases C, Isc1 and Pgc1, Cooperate To Regulate Mitochondrial Function.

The absence of Isc1, the yeast homologue of mammalian neutral sphingomyelinase type 2, leads to severe mitochondrial dysfunction. We show that the deletion of another type C phospholipase, the phosphatidylglycerol (PG)-specific phospholipase Pgc1, rescues this defect. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) levels and cytochrome c oxidase activity, which were reduced in isc1Δ cells, were restored to wild-type levels in the pgc1Δ isc1Δ mutant. The Pgc1 substrate PG inhibited the in vitro activities of Isc1 and the phosphatidylserine decarboxylase Psd1, an enzyme crucial for PE biosynthesis. We also identify a mechanism by which the balance between the current demand for PG and its consumption is controlled. We document that the product of PG hydrolysis, diacylglycerol, competes with the substrate of PG-phosphate synthase, Pgs1, and thereby inhibits the biosynthesis of excess PG. This feedback loop does not work in the absence of Pgc1, which catalyzes PG degradation. Finally, Pgc1 activity is partially inhibited by products of Isc1-mediated hydrolysis. The described functional interconnection of the two phospholipases contributes significantly to lipid homeostasis throughout the cellular architecture. IMPORTANCE In eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are constantly adapting to changes in the biological activity of the cell, i.e., changes in nutrient availability and environmental stresses. We propose a model in which this adaptation is mediated by lipids. Specifically, we show that mitochondrial phospholipids regulate the biosynthesis of cellular sphingolipids and vice versa. To do this, lipids move by free diffusion, which does not require energy and works under any condition. This model represents a simple way for the cell to coordinate mitochondrial structure and performance with the actual needs of overall cellular metabolism. Its simplicity makes it a universally applicable principle of cellular regulation.

Development of Enzymatic Depletion Methods for Preparation of Small Extracellular Vesicles with Long Blood-Circulation Half-Life.

Phosphatidylserine (PS)-deficient small extracellular vesicle (sEV) subpopulations (PS(-) sEVs) circulate in blood for long periods; hence, they are expected to have therapeutic applications. However, limited production of PS(-) sEVs makes their application difficult. In this study, a method for the preparation of such populations using an enzymatic reaction was developed. Bulk sEVs collected from a cell culture supernatant via ultracentrifugation were subjected to an enzymatic reaction using phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD). The yield of PS(-) sEVs was estimated using magnetic beads that bind to PS(+) sEVs. Then, the physical properties and pharmacokinetics (PK) of the sEVs were evaluated. Enzymatic depletion of PS exposed on sEV surfaces using PSD increased the yield of PS(-) sEVs. PSD treatment hardly changed the physicochemical properties of PS(-) sEVs. Moreover, the serum concentration profile and PK parameters of the PS(-) sEVs derived from PSD-treated bulk sEVs indicated a long blood-circulation half-life. Treatment of sEVs with PSD successfully reduced surface PS levels and increased the amount of the PS(-) sEV subpopulation among bulk sEVs. This protocol of efficient preparation of PS(-) sEVs based on PSD treatment, as well as information on the basic PK, can be foundational for the therapeutic application of sEVs.

Comparative transcriptomic and lipidomic analyses indicate that cold stress enhanced the production of the long C18-C22 polyunsaturated fatty acids in Aurantiochytrium sp.

Aurantiochytrium sp. belonging to Thraustochytrids are known for their capacity to produce long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). However, effects of cold stress accompanied with staged-temperature control on the fatty acid metabolism in Aurantiochytrium sp. were rarely studied. In this study, cold stress (15°C, 5°C) was applied for Aurantiochytrium sp., with the physiological responses (morphology, growth, fatty acid profiling) and gene expression related FA synthesis, lipid metabolism, and regulatory processes was observed. Results showed that there is a significant change for the lipid types under 5°C (251 species) and 15°C (97 species) treatment. The 5°C treatment was benefit for the C18–C22 PUFAs with the yield of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increased to 1.25 times. After incubation at 15°C, the accumulation of eicosadienoic acid (EA) (20:2) was increased to 2.00-fold. Based on transcriptomic and qPCR analysis, an increase in genes involved in fatty acid synthase (FAS) and polyketide synthase (PKS) pathways was observed under low-temperature treatment. With upregulation of 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase (2.44-fold), ketoreductase (2.50-fold), and dTDP-glucose 4,6-Dehydratase (rfbB) (2.31-fold) involved in PKS pathway, the accumulation of DHA was enhanced under 5°C. While, FAS and fatty elongase 3 (ELO) involved in the FAS pathway were upregulated (1.55-fold and 2.45-fold, respectively) to accumulate PUFAs at 15°C. Additionally, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT), lysophospholipid acyltransferase (LPAT), phosphatidic acid phosphatase (PAP), phosphatidylserine synthase (PSS), and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD) involved in glycerophospholipid biosynthesis were upregulated at 5°C increasing the accumulation of phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and phosphatidylinositol (PI). However, glycolysis and the TCA cycle were inhibited under 5°C. This study provides a contribution to the application of two-staged temperature control in the Aurantiochytrium sp. fermentation for producing cold stress-enhancing PUFAs, in order to better understand the function of the key genes for future genetic engineering.

Non-apoptotic activity of the mitochondrial protein SMAC/Diablo in lung cancer: Novel targetto disrupt survival, inflammation, and immunosuppression.

Mitochondrial SMAC/Diablo induces apoptosis by binding the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs), thereby activating caspases and, subsequently, apoptosis. Previously, we found that despite its pro-apoptotic activity, SMAC/Diablo is overexpressed in cancer, and demonstrated that in cancer it possesses new essential and non-apoptotic functions that are associated with regulating phospholipid synthesis including modulating mitochondrial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase activity. Here, we demonstrate additional functions for SMAC/Diablo associated with inflammation and immunity. CRISPR/Cas9 SMAC/Diablo-depleted A549 lung cancer cells displayed inhibited cell proliferation and migration. Proteomics analysis of these cells revealed altered expression of proteins associated with lipids synthesis and signaling, vesicular transport and trafficking, metabolism, epigenetics, the extracellular matrix, cell signaling, and neutrophil-mediated immunity. SMAC-KO A549 cell-showed inhibited tumor growth and proliferation and activated apoptosis. The small SMAC-depleted “tumor” showed a morphology of alveoli-like structures, reversed epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and altered tumor microenvironment. The SMAC-lacking tumor showed reduced expression of inflammation-related proteins such as NF-kB and TNF-α, and of the PD-L1, associated with immune system suppression. These results suggest that SMAC is involved in multiple processes that are essential for tumor growth and progression. Thus, targeting SMAC’s non-canonical function is a potential strategy to treat cancer.

The mitochondrial PE synthase Psd1 moonlights at ER subdomains to promote LD biogenesis

The asymmetric distribution of phospholipids in membranes is a fundamental principle of cellular compartmentalization and organization and is a crucial factor regulating organelle shape and biogenesis. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), a nonbilayer phospholipid that generates negative membrane curvature, has many cellular roles, including regulating mitochondrial architecture and lipidation of the autophagy factor LC3. Previously, we demonstrated in budding yeast that the PE synthase Psd1, which canonically operates on the mitochondrial inner membrane, unexpectedly also localizes to the ER. However, it has been unclear what the role of ER‐localized Psd1 is. We now resolve this mystery and demonstrate that ER‐localized Psd1 is a critical regulator of lipid droplet (LD) biogenesis at ER subdomains. While it is constitutively targeted to the ER membrane, Psd1 transiently concentrates on the ER to LD attachment sites specifically during stimulated LD biogenesis. Using an inducible LD biogenesis assay, we demonstrate that ER‐localized Psd1 is required for normal LD formation. Further, we identify a LD binding motif on Psd1 and show that this motif is required for Psd1 to influence LD morphogenesis. We also find that the role of phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD) enzymes in LD formation is conserved in fission yeast, though occurs through a distinct targeting mechanism than in budding yeast. Thus, we have identified PSD enzymes as novel regulators of LDs and demonstrate that both mitochondria and LDs are organized and shaped by the spatial positioning of a single PE synthesis enzyme.