Phoretic Host Research Articles

Varroa mite removal from whole honey bee colonies by powdered sugar dusting is enhanced by crowding and mechanical agitation of treated workers

The honey bee parasite, Varroa destructor, is susceptible to removal by dusting agents that physically interfere with its ability to cling to its phoretic hosts. Here we describe modifications to established powdered sugar dusting techniques that modestly increased mite separation from hosts and allowed for greater reductions in whole colony mite infestation rates. These modifications increased body-to-body contact through crowding and mechanical agitation to supplement dusting effects on mite removal. Adult workers were isolated in a screened sugar shake box outside the colony, dusted with powdered sugar, then carefully shaken and bounced in crowded piles for one minute to separate mites from their hosts. Whole colony powdered sugar shake treatments resulted on average in a 92% reduction in post-treatment mite infestation rates over three successive mite treatments. Our modifications provided effective mite control comparable to the miticide Apiguard (thymol) without discernable negative effects on colonies. Four months after treatment, powdered sugar shake treated colonies had relatively similar-sized adult worker and brood populations as Apiguard treated colonies and larger adult populations than controls. Colonies also maintained queens and reared relatively few queen cells across treatments. Further comparisons of method components revealed that mechanical agitation of crowded workers enhanced mite separation from hosts due to powdered sugar dusting. Mechanical agitation alone only modestly increased mite separation compared to controls; however, high levels of mite separation associated with sugar dusting increased with agitation. These modified methods provide a rapid if laborious technique for reducing mite populations without chemical residues from restricted miticides.

Mite dilemma: molting to acquire sexual maturity or not molting to ensure durability and dispersal ability in Phorytocarpais fimetorum (Parasitiformes; Gamasida; Parasitidae)

Dispersal from birthplace is an effective strategy to cope up with unpredictable environmental change. In many animals, dispersal is carried out prior to mating and reproduction to avoid inbreeding. However, this also means that the dispersers must find mates in the new habitat. Phorytocarpais fimetorum (= former name Parasitus fimetorum) is a free-living predatory mite inhabiting animal dung and manure. In such ephemeral habitats, the mites quickly develop from egg to deutonymph as the environmentally tolerant, dispersal stage via larva and protonymph stages. After dispersal to new habitats utilizing dung beetles as phoretic hosts, deutonymphs have to decide whether to molt to adulthood by losing their tolerance and migration ability or not to molt and continue dispersal. Here, using molt-suppressing deutonymphs that were obtained under isolated conditions, I investigated whether food conditions (amount of rearing medium bearing nematodes as prey) and encounters with conspecifics stimulate their molting. A drastic increase in food resources induced molting in both sexes, but the responses to the pairing treatment were different between sexes. Whereas female deutonymphs molted at the encounter with males regardless of whether they were deutonymphs or adults, molting of male deutonymphs was induced only at the pairing with female deutonymphs (not adult females). Because adult females are usually nonvirgin and have already started oviposition, the males seemed to discriminate against them. The decision about molting is understandable as a male mate choice, which is adaptive to the limited mating opportunities in ephemeral environments.

A new, morphologically and ecologically unusual Lasioseius mite (Acari: Blattisociidae) associated with Diaperis boleti (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) and wood-decomposing fungi in Slovakia

On the basis of females and males found on the adult beetles of the mycophagous tenebrionid Diaperis boleti (L.) and on the polypore fungi Fomitopsis betulina, Laetiporus sulphureus, and Cerioporus squamosus infested with this beetle, which serve as a specific phoretic host for the new species, a new blattisociid mite, Lasioseius boleti sp. nov. was described. The new species is characterised by a pronounced sexual dimorphism of the dorsal chaetotaxy, which is unusual for the genus, and by several features more typical of other highly specialized fungicoles among the mesostigmatic mites than of other species of Lasioseius Berlese, such as the genera Hoploseius Berlese (Blattisociidae), Mycomelichares Mašán and Joharchi (Melicharidae), and Bulbolaelaps Faraji, Zare and Rahmani (Digamasellidae). The new species is unusual among the known congeners mainly because of its unusual bionomy, sexual dimorphism, presence of unequal setae that vary greatly in length and form in both sexes, moderately shortened peritremes, sharp cheliceral teeth, and brush-like tritosternum.

Quantitative assessment of the dispersal of soil-dwelling oribatid mites via rodents in restored heathlands.

Heathland restoration using topsoil removal requires the re-colonization of above- and belowground communities. Oribatid mites play a key role in the comminution of organic matter and are frequently early colonizers during succession despite their limited mobility. Whereas the assembly of their communities may take decades, passive dispersal likely dominates colonization processes, but especially dispersal via other animals (phoresy) remains poorly studied. Compared to other potential hosts, movement habits and ecology of small rodents may provide dispersal advantages to oribatid communities. We studied dispersal of oribatid mites via small rodents in restored heathland sites of different age. We measured movement patterns of small rodents and extracted mites from their pelts and nests to estimate annual contributions of these rodents to the dispersal of oribatids. We also discussed phoretic estimates reported on other host groups as a reference. Probability estimates of oribatids in pelts and nests showed lower occurrence frequencies compared to other reported phoretic hosts. However, local rodent communities may aid the dispersal of up to 41,000 oribatid mites per year. We highlight the high diversity of oribatid species mounting rodents, unlike strong species-specific filters reported in other passive pathways. We found that over half (58%) of the oribatid species reproduced asexually and over a third (32%) had a soil-dwelling lifestyle. We also observed that rodents often travel short distances below 40 m, but occasionally reach distances of up to 100 m, especially in earlier successional stages. Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that rodents may contribute to assembly processes of soil-dwelling oribatid communities given the slow turnover rate of this group in heathlands. This is accomplished through short-distance dispersal, and especially in sites at early stages of succession. To our knowledge, we are the first to quantitatively assess the potential dispersal of oribatid mites via rodents.

Phoretic specialization on insect herbivores facilitates mite transportation to host plants

AbstractPhoresy, the use of another organism for dispersal, is one of the most intriguing commensalistic interactions. The selection of a correct host is fundamental for phoretic organisms to ensure arrival to suitable habitats and to encounter potential mates. This study focuses on a group of phoretic mites in the genus Lasioseius (Acari: Blattisociidae). In La Selva Biological Station, a tropical wet forest in Costa Rica, Lasioseius mites feed on nematodes inside the scrolls formed by the young leaves of their hosts, plants in the order Zingiberales. When leaves expand and unfurl, mites disperse to another rolled leaf by clinging onto ‘rolled‐leaf beetles’, a group of insect herbivores specialized on Zingiberales (genera Cephaloleia and Chelobasis; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). In this study, we determined whether Lasioseius mites associated with Cephaloleia belti Baly are specialized on this beetle species as a phoretic host. Mites may also be attracted to Chelobasis perplexa Baly, sharing the same host plant. Another possibility is that Lasioseius mites are opportunistic generalists and attach to rolled‐leaf beetle species (e.g., Cephaloleia dorsalis Baly) that never share host plants with either C. belti or Ch. perplexa. In a laboratory setting, we tested whether mites preferred scents from and/or attached to particular beetle species. Scent attraction experiments showed that Lasioseius mites collected from C. belti were attracted to scents from C. belti and Ch. perplexa, but were not attracted to scents from C. dorsalis. Mites collected from C. belti attached to both C. belti and Ch. perplexa, but never to C. dorsalis. In conclusion, Lasioseius mites are not strict specialists, but are able to detect and attach to beetle species that inhabit their host plant.

Development ofFannia pusio(Diptera: Fanniidae) Under Controlled Temperature Conditions and its Enforcement in the Estimate of the Post-mortem Interval (PMI)

Fannia pusio(Wiedemann, 1830) is a species belonging to the family Fanniidae, which is of great forensic, sanitary, and veterinary interest. The behavioral peculiarities of this species, depending on the temperature at which it is found, may provide additional information for future research. The application of entomology in the forensic field has focused especially on the early colonizing taxa of corpses that are in the initial stage of decomposition. However, species occurring at more advanced stages can contribute to further knowledge, as is the case withF. pusio. In addition, the species has the ability to colonize buried corpses that are inaccessible to larger dipterans. On the other hand, the sanitary and veterinary interest of this species is due to the performance of females as phoretic hosts ofDermatobia hominiseggs that cause myiasis in both animals and humans. In the current study, the behavior ofF. pusiowas observed at a temperature range of 5°C to 40°C. We found that its viability range is limited between 15°C and 35°C; above and below these temperatures, adults survive but oviposition does not take place. Data collected by statistical analysis were subsequently applied to calculate the post-mortem interval (PMI) using isomorphen and isomegalen diagrams. The results show a directly proportional relationship between growth rate and temperature increase. However, a slowdown in the growth of individuals was observed at extreme temperatures (5°C and 35°C). The results shown in this manuscript, together with the existing bibliography of other species, help to broaden the knowledge ofF. pusio, which has not been studied in such depth until now.

Burrowing owls as potential phoretic hosts of ground squirrel fleas during a plague epizootic.

During the course of a plague epizootic, decimation of rodent host populations may result in the transfer of fleas to alternate or phoretic hosts, including to sympatric raptors that prey on rodents. We studied flea abundance and flea species assemblages on burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) in southwestern Idaho before (2012 - 2014), during (2015 - 2016), and after (2017) an epizootic of plague in Piute ground squirrels (Urocitellis mollis). We examined (1) if a larger proportion of burrowing owl nests contained fleas, (2) the likelihood that owls within a high flea abundance class increased, and (3) if owls harbored ground squirrel fleas during the epizootic. Using a flea abundance index assigned to 1,184 owls from 236 nests, the proportion of nests and the likelihood that owls had high flea abundance decreased rather than increased during epizootic years. Moreover, of 3,538 collected fleas from owls at 143 nests, no fleas were species that Piute ground squirrels typically harbor. Instead, Pulex irritans was the predominant flea collected in all study years (> 99%). Thus, although raptors may play a role in plague, there was no evidence that the die-off of ground squirrels resulted in higher flea intensity in burrowing owls or that they served as frequent accidental or phoretic hosts for ground squirrel fleas that could potentially be infectious with Yersinia pestis.

Preliminary life history observations of the pseudoscorpion Megachernes ryugadensis (Pseudoscorpiones: Chernetidae) phoretic on wood mice in Japan

Pseudoscorpions are predators of arthropods and primarily inhabit soil litter and tree bark in forests, although some species have been collected from animal nests, suggesting close associations with mammals and birds. We made preliminary observations on the life cycle and life history traits of Megachernes ryugadensis Morikawa, 1954, phoretic on the wood mice Apodemus speciosus and A. argenteus, by sampling wild specimens in the field and rearing these specimens in a laboratory. The main phoretic host at the study site was A. speciosus; we observed an average of 1–1.7 pseudoscorpions on 5–36% of mice within the 2-year study period. The observed phoretic stages of M. ryugadensis were adults and tritonymphs; the phoretic ratio on A. speciosus was relatively stable for 2 years. The duration of full development from egg to adult in M. ryugadensis was unclear, probably due to unsuitable rearing conditions; however, individuals survived as adults for over one year. Typical maternal care was confirmed in pseudoscorpions and egg hatching was synchronized to within ca. 8 h. Further study, including close examination of mouse nests, is required to elucidate the symbiotic relationship between the pseudoscorpion and host rodents.

Adaptive morphology of the host-seeking first-instar larva of Stylops advarians Pierce (Strepsiptera, Stylopidae), a parasite of Andrena milwaukeensis Graenicher (Hymenoptera, Andrenidae)

The morphology of the prognathous, host-seeking first-instar larvae of Stylops advarians was examined to advance our understanding of their adaptations to reach immature bee hosts, a process requiring temporal phoresy on an adult bee. Sensory structures on the larval head, including eye spots and two pairs of olfactory pits, evidently assist recognition of an adult bee and eventual detection of a permanent host within a nest cell. First-instar larvae utilize various features of their appendages to travel securely on their phoretic host. Flexible adhesive tarsi of the pro- and mesothoracic legs allow them to embark and be retained on a flying bee. The tips of the pair of caudal filaments appear modified for a similar purpose. Spinulae of two lengths, and arranged in distinct patterns, cover the posterior edges of the thoracic and abdominal segments both dorsally and ventrally. These projections can cause lodging of larvae in the plumose hairs of the phoretic host, and may lock into the exine of pollen collected by the foraging bee. Discovery of a first-instar larva partially packed into a pollen load and in the crop of Andrena milwaukeensis demonstrates that Stylops is adapted to travel with a phoretic host both externally and internally.

Revision of the genus Athyreacarus (Acari: Athyreacaridae).

Mites of the genus Athyreacarus (Acari: Athyreacaridae) associated with bolboceratine beetles (Coleoptera: Geotrupidae: Bolboceratine) of New World are revised, a new generic concept provided, and the family concept modified. Nine new species are described: A. grandis sp. nov. on Neoathyreus lanuginosus in Brazil; A. magnificus sp. nov. on Athyreus tuberifer in Brazil; A. variabilis sp. nov. on Neoathyreus cf. anthracinus in Brazil; A. similis sp. nov. on Neoathyreus centromaculatus in Bolivia; A. vazdemelloi sp. nov. on Parathyreus rectus in Brazil; A. pusillus sp. nov. on Athyreus brasilicus in Brazil; A. latus sp. nov. on Athyreus cf. bifurcatus from unknown locality; A. angustus sp. nov. on Bolbelasmus horni in USA; and A. ovalis sp. nov. on Bolbelasmus variabilis in Mexico. Bolbapium striatopunctatum, B. minutum, and B. sculpturatum are recorded as new phoretic host beetles for Athyreacarus primitivus. A key to genera and species of the family Athyreacaridae is provided.

Phoretic mite communities associated with bark beetles in the maritime and stone pine forests of Setúbal, Portugal.

The phoretic mite communities of prominent bark beetle pests associated with pine stands of southern Portugal were sampled to determine whether they vary across bark beetle species and stand type. Bark beetles were sampled for mites from two primary (aggressive) bark beetle species (Ips sexdentatus and Orthotomicus erosus) and the most common secondary species (Hylurgus ligniperda) in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and stone pine (Pinus pinea) in the Setúbal province of Portugal. Twelve mite species, spanning diverse ecological roles, are found associated with these bark beetle systems. The relative abundances of the 12 species that make up the phoretic mite communities of maritime and stone pine varied significantly between host beetle species as well as between stand type, indicating that the phoretic host and dominant tree type are important drivers of mite community composition. The functional roles of these mites are outlined and their ecological significance in pine forest ecosystems is discussed.

Diversity and Plant Pathogenicity of Bursaphelenchus and Related Nematodes in Relation to Their Vector Bionomics

The nematode genus Bursaphelenchus is a highly divergent group containing fungal feeders and obligate and facultative plant parasites. The genus is also known as the phoretic (and parasitic) associates of many groups of insects. Further, two major plant pathogens, B. xylophilus and B. cocophilus, are members of this genus, and several other species are suspected to be weak to moderate plant pathogens. Here, the diversity of vector insects and host/habitat/plant species interactions, as well as phylogenetic relationships, are summarized for Bursaphelenchus species. The hypothetical origins of plant pathogenicity for different species of Bursaphelenchus are then discussed in relation to the bionomics of their vector insects. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the genus is separated into four clades, and the basal clade will be further separated into two new genera. Based on a literature survey, the phoretic host association patterns appear different among the other three true Bursaphelenchus clades, i.e., one clade is mostly associated with bark beetles that occupy relatively dry niches (under bark), whereas the other two clades are associated with various groups of insects inhabiting diverse niches in other relatively humid conditions. Plant pathogenicity for a few members is hypothetically derived from the nematodes’ tolerance to the static resistance of host plants, i.e., the nematode species vectored by the insects attacking or interfacing with live plant tissue were provided an opportunity and, in a few cases, possessed the means to manifest plant pathogenicity with serious consequences, i.e., B. xylophilus and B. cocophilus.

The Imaramagambo Onchocerciasis Focus in Southwestern Uganda: Interruption of Transmission After Disappearance of the Vector Simulium neavei and Its Associated Freshwater Crabs.

It was not until early 1990s that, when the Imaramagambo focus of southwest Uganda was mapped, mass treatment with a single annual dose of ivermectin for onchocerciaisis control commenced. However, comprehensive investigations on its transmission were launched after a nationwide policy for onchocerciasis elimination in 2007. Entomological surveys throughout the focus from 2007 to 2015 have yielded few or no freshwater crabs (Potamonautes aloysiisabaudiae), which serve as the obligate phoretic host of the larvae and pupae of the vector Simulium neavei. No S. neavei flies have been observed or collected since 2007. Skin snips (microscopy) from 294 individuals in 2008 were negative for skin microfilariae, and of the 462 persons analyzed by polymerase chain reaction skin snip poolscreen in 2009, only five (1.08%) persons were indicated as infected with onchocerciasis. All five of the positive persons were at least 40 years old. Serosurvey results showed negative exposure among 3,332 children in 2012 and 3,108 children in 2015. Both were within the upper bound of the 95% confidence interval of the prevalence estimate of 0.06%, which confirmed the elimination of onchocerciasis. Treatment coverage in Imaramagambo was generally poor, and transmission interruption of onchocerciasis could not be attributed solely to annual mass treatment with ivermectin. There was sufficient evidence to believe that the possible disappearance of the S. neavei flies, presumed to have been the main vector, may have hastened the demise of onchocerciasis in this focus.

Detecting Burrowing Owl Bloodmeals in Pulex irritans (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

Pulex irritans L. is a cosmopolitan flea species that infests a wide variety of hosts. In North America it generally parasitizes large wild mammals, but in the Pacific Northwest an association has emerged between P. irritans and the western burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia hypugaea). While investigators have recognized this association for decades, it has not been clear if P. irritans feeds on burrowing owls, or if the owls serve exclusively as phoretic hosts. Here we describe using a real-time assay that was originally developed to identify bloodmeals in Ugandan cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis Bouché) to detect burrowing owl DNA in P. irritans collected from burrowing owls in southern Idaho. Of 50 fleas tested, 12 had no detectable vertebrate bloodmeal. The remaining 38 (76%) contained burrowing owl DNA. The assay did not detect vertebrate DNA in unfed fleas exposed to owl or mouse pelts and is therefore unlikely to detect DNA in fleas from vertebrates that have served exclusively as phoretic hosts. We conclude that P. irritans feeds on burrowing owls. We discuss the potential implications of this finding for burrowing owl conservation and enzootic plague dynamics.

Burrowing Owls, Pulex irritans, and Plague.

Western Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) are small, ground-dwelling owls of western North America that frequent prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) towns and other grasslands. Because they rely on rodent prey and occupy burrows once or concurrently inhabited by fossorial mammals, the owls often harbor fleas. We examined the potential role of fleas found on burrowing owls in plague dynamics by evaluating prevalence of Yersinia pestis in fleas collected from burrowing owls and in owl blood. During 2012-2013, fleas and blood were collected from burrowing owls in portions of five states with endemic plague-Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Colorado, and South Dakota. Fleas were enumerated, taxonomically identified, pooled by nest, and assayed for Y. pestis using culturing and molecular (PCR) approaches. Owl blood underwent serological analysis for plague antibodies and nested PCR for detection of Y. pestis. Of more than 4750 fleas collected from owls, Pulex irritans, a known plague vector in portions of its range, comprised more than 99.4%. However, diagnostic tests for Y. pestis of flea pools (culturing and PCR) and owl blood (PCR and serology) were negative. Thus, even though fleas were prevalent on burrowing owls and the potential for a relationship with burrowing owls as a phoretic host of infected fleas exists, we found no evidence of Y. pestis in sampled fleas or in owls that harbored them. We suggest that studies similar to those reported here during plague epizootics will be especially useful for confirming these results.

Bromeliad treefrogs as phoretic hosts of ostracods.

Aquatic organisms can use many methods of dispersal among discrete freshwater habitats, and phoresy is an important but poorly understood mechanism. Tank bromeliads are small and unconnected habitats used by many animals, and some of them use phoresy for dispersal. Ostracods living in bromeliads used treefrogs as phoretic hosts for dispersal. We investigated the distribution of phoretic ostracods among body parts of treefrogs (Scinax littoreus and Scinax perpusillus), the prevalence and intensity of ostracods (Elpidium sp.) between Scinax species, and the prevalence and mean intensity of ostracods among the frogs in wet vs. dry seasons in two inselbergs areas at Rio de Janeiro State (Brazil). There were significant differences among the body parts occupied by ostracods and between the Scinax species. Seasonal differences were found only for S. littoreus showing greater abundance during the wet season. Additionally, we record Scinax cuspidatus and Thoropa miliaris as new phoretic hosts for Elpidium sp. to use phoresy.

Host orientation using volatiles in the phoretic nematode Caenorhabditis japonica.

Host orientation is the most important step in host-searching nematodes; however, information on direct cues from hosts to evoke this behaviour is limited. Caenorhabditis japonica establishes a species-specific phoresy with Parastrachia japonensis. Dauer larvae (DL), the non-feeding and phoretic stage of C. japonica, are predominantly found on female phoretic hosts, but the mechanisms underlying the establishment of this phoresy remain unknown. To determine whether C. japonica DL are able to recognize and orient themselves to a host using a volatile cue from the host, we developed a Y-tube olfactory assay system in which C. japonica DL were significantly attracted to the air from P. japonensis but not to the air from three other insects or to CO2. These results demonstrated that C. japonica DL utilize volatiles for host recognition and orientation and that the presence of a specific volatile kairomone released by the host attracts C. japonica DL.

Phoretic mites identified on andean hummingbirds (Trochilidae) of Caldas, Colombia

Within the bird-plant-mite system, the relationship between hummingbirds, flowers, and mites remains poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the degree of association between nasal mites and eight species of Andean hummingbirds in Colombia (Amazilia saucerrottei, A. tzacatl, Chalybura buffonii, Chlorostilbon mellisugus, Florisuga mellivora, Glaucis hirsutus, Phaethornis guy and P. striigularis). Over a five-month period (trapping effort 360 hours/month), a total of 178 birds were captured, from which 81 mite specimens were collected and identified as belonging to three genera (Proctolaelaps, Rhinoseius and Tropicoseius) spanning eleven species. This is the first report of its kind from Colombia on the identification of the mite species P. rabulatus, R. luteyni, R. rafinskii, T. berryi, T. colwelli, T. erro and T. uniformis and the first record of P. guy as phoretic host for Proctolaelaps rabulatus. Morphological characteristics (length of the dorsal plate, width of the dorsal plate and setae z5 length) alone failed to distinguish between mite species. The ecologic impact of this relationship on flowers with respect to nectar and pollen availability and the effect of mites on pollination by hummingbirds needs to be determined.

Influence of spatio-temporal resource availability on mushroom mite diversity

Although biodiversity in nature is of fundamental importance because it improves the sustainability of ecosystems, communities of microscopic organisms are generally excluded from conservation targets for biodiversity. Here, I hypothesize that mushroom mite species richness is correlated with both spatial (i.e., mushroom size) and temporal (i.e., longevity of fruiting bodies) resource availability. I collected fruiting bodies in an old-growth forest over 4 years to collect mites and insects inhabiting the mushrooms. Mites were collected from 47 % of the fruiting bodies and approximately 60 % of the mite species were collected only once. Mite species richness was significantly correlated with the availability of long-lasting fruiting bodies. For example, bracket fungi contained more mite species than ephemeral fruiting bodies. Insect presence was also correlated with mushroom mite richness, probably as phoretic hosts and food resources for predacious mites. On the other hand, mushroom size seemed to be less important; small fruiting bodies sometimes harbored several mite species. Although mite species richness was correlated with mushroom species richness, mushroom specificity by mites was not clear except for a preference for long-lasting fruiting bodies. Therefore, I suggest that a constant supply of coarse woody debris is crucial for maintaining preferred resources for mushroom mites (e.g., bracket fungi) and their associated insects (mycophilous and possibly saproxylic insects).

Earthworms as phoretic hosts for Steinernema carpocapsae and Beauveria bassiana: Implications for enhanced biological control

Prior research indicated that earthworms may serve as phoretic hosts to entomopathogenic nematodes. Therefore, we hypothesized that biocontrol efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes could be enhanced in the presence of earthworms based on increased nematode dispersal through the soil. We also hypothesized that earthworms may serve as phoretic hosts to other entomopathogens, such as entomopathogenic fungi. We tested the first hypothesis by comparing the ability of two strains of Steinernema carpocapsae to suppress the pecan weevil, Curculio caryae, in the presence or absence of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. Under greenhouse conditions, S. carpocapsae was applied to the soil surface in pots containing C. caryae larvae. We tested the second hypothesis by determining the effects of L. terrestris on dispersal of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana in soil columns. Our results indicated that earthworm presence improved the ability of S. carpocapsae (Sal strain) to control C. caryae below the soil surface. Additionally, S. carpocapsae (All strain) only caused significant C. caryae suppression relative to the controls in the presence of earthworms. B. bassiana dispersal was enhanced by earthworm presence. The fungus was carried through soil by the earthworm; conidia recovered from the earthworm casts remained viable and was pathogenic to Galleria mellonella. Earthworms and other phoretic hosts may assist in dispersal of entomopathogenic nematode and fungal populations in various ecosystems and thereby assist in regulation of insect pests. Additionally, it may be conceivable to combine the application of earthworms with entomopathogens to achieve enhanced levels of inundative or inoculative biocontrol.