Phonological Processing Research Articles

Cortical, subcortical, and cerebellar contributions to language processing: A meta-analytic review of 403 neuroimaging experiments.

Language is a key human faculty for communication and interaction that provides invaluable insight into the human mind. Previous work has dissected different linguistic operations, but the large-scale brain networks involved in language processing are still not fully uncovered. Particularly, little is known about the subdomain-specific engagement of brain areas during semantic, syntactic, phonological, and prosodic processing and the role of subcortical and cerebellar areas. Here, we present the largest coordinate-based meta-analysis of language processing including 403 experiments. Overall, language processing primarily engaged bilateral fronto-temporal cortices, with the highest activation likelihood in the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Whereas we could not detect any syntax-specific regions, semantics specifically engaged left posterior temporal areas (left fusiform and occipitotemporal cortex) and the left frontal pole. Phonology showed highest subdomain-specificity in bilateral auditory and left postcentral regions, whereas prosody engaged specifically the right amygdala and the right IFG. Across all subdomains and modalities, we found strong bilateral subcortical and cerebellar contributions. Especially the right cerebellum was engaged during various processes, including speech production, visual, and phonological tasks. Collectively, our results emphasize consistent recruitment and high functional modularity for general language processing in bilateral domain-specific (temporo-frontal) and domain-general (medial frontal/anterior cingulate cortex) regions but also a high specialization of different subareas for different linguistic subdomains. Our findings refine current neurobiological models of language by adding novel insight into the general sensitivity of the language network and subdomain-specific functions of different brain areas and highlighting the role of subcortical and cerebellar regions for different language operations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

A Systematic Description of Imbrication in Nyakyusa

This paper offers a systematic description of imbrication in Nyakyusa (M31). The review of the literature indicates that, in Nyakyusa, imbrication, a phonological change involving the opaque difference between the input and output forms in the -ile suffix, has not been systematically described. Hence, the paper offers this description by identifying triggering conditions and reconstructing the phonological processes shaping imbrication. Data for this paper were collected in Kyela district through a review of written texts, narrative stories, observation and interviews. The findings indicate that the syllable structure of the verb is the main determinant of imbrication in Nyakyusa. Quite obviously, the process of imbrication involves the deletion of the consonant in the -ile, followed by metathesis whereby the last consonant of the stem fills the empty slot caused by the deletion of [l]. Then, various adjustments that follow, i.e., vowel coalescence, vowel deletion, vowel rising, leftward spread of vowel, and vowel lengthening, are meant to resolve hiatus. The paper concludes that, based on the review of literature, although imbrication is common in some Bantu languages, we noted some conditions and phonological processes shaping imbrication to be language specific. In this view, this paper recommends a systematic comparative description of imbrication in other Bantu languages.

Pemerolehan Fonologi Dalam Perkembangan Bahasa Anak Usia 3,5 Tahun

Phonological acquisition is a critical aspect of a child's language development. This process involves the formation of a complex sound system of language through the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. This article examines how the process of phonological acquisition in the language of children aged 3.5 years. Children who were the object of this study had a fairly good level of language acquisition. But in terms of phonology, there are still many errors in pronunciation. The background of this study examines the importance of understanding the phonological acquisition process in a critical stage of children's language development. The study aims to identify the main factors that influence phonological acquisition in this age range. The method used in this study is a descriptive qualitative method, which explains the acquisition of language in children in terms of phonology. Data collection techniques involve listening, interacting and speaking. The object of this study was a girl named Grace Angel Agata, who in interacting have been able to pronounce various forms of simple words and sentences. The results showed that the children were able to pronounce vowel elements (a, i, u, e, o), while consonant elements were still found to have some pronunciation errors. The study's findings underscore the role of social environment, interaction with others, and genetic predisposition in shaping a child's phonological development.

Developmental dyslexia: Convergence of all theories towards a multifactional model, and the role of ICTs

Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterised by slow and inaccurate word recognition. This article intends to summarize the current understanding of developmental dyslexia's etiology, brain bases, neuropsychology, and social context. In this article are discussed the progress has been made the last years in domains involving definition and classification, neuropsychological correlates, neurobiological factors, and intervention of dyslexia. It is also referred to the neuropsychological approaches to dyslexia have evolved and the importance of an interdisciplinary perspective for understanding dyslexia. Dyslexia is caused by multiple genetic and environmental risk factors as well as their interplay. Several candidate genes have been identified in the past decade. At the brain level, dyslexia is associated with aberrant structure and function, particularly in left hemisphere reading/language networks. The neurocognitive influences on dyslexia are also multifactorial and involve phonological processing deficits as well as weaknesses in other oral language skills and processing speed. Contextual issues such as the correlation of dyslexia with an individual’s IQ or age, the manifestation of dyslexia across languages and social classes as well as what treatments are best supported are being examined. This article is aimed at highlighting the exciting new research that cuts across levels of analysis. Such work promises eventually to provide a comprehensive explanation of the disorder as well as its prevention and remediation. In this recent contribution to the field of Dyslexia, we will be mentioned to some historical information, as well as we will be faced with significant issues in the Phonological Theory of Dyslexia. The single versus will multiple deficit accounts. In the field of the etiology of Dyslexia, we will be mentioned to the Behavioural Genetics, to the Molecular Genetics and to Environmental Influences. Individuals with dyslexia show functional abnormalities in both posterior and anterior language networks. This approach is intended to promote scientific knowledge and draws attention to the complexity of the developmental dyslexia (DD).

Phonological deficits in dyslexia impede lexical processing of spoken words: Linking behavioural and MEG data

Phonological difficulties have been identified as a core deficit in developmental dyslexia, yet everyday speech comprehension, which relies on phonological processing, is seemingly unaffected. This raises the question as to how dyslexic readers process spoken words to achieve normal word comprehension. Here we establish a link between neural correlates of lexical and sublexical processing in auditory words and behaviourally measured phonological deficits using magnetoencephalography (MEG). Spatiotemporally resolved cortical responses to phonological and lexico-semantic information were computed with the event-related regression technique (Hauk et al., 2009) and correlated with dyslexic and non-dyslexic subjects’ phonological skills. We found that phonological deficits reduced cortical responses to both phonological and lexico-semantic information (phonological neighbours and word frequency). Individuals with lower phonological skills – independent of dyslexia diagnosis – showed weaker neural responses to phonological neighbourhood information in both hemispheres 200–500 ms after word onset and reduced sensitivity to written and spoken word frequency between 200 and 650 ms. Dyslexic readers showed weaker responses to written word frequency in particular compared to the control group, pointing towards an additional effect of print exposure on auditory word processing. Source space analysis localised phonological and lexico-semantic effect peaks to the left superior temporal gyrus, a key area that has been related to core deficits in dyslexia across a range of neuroimaging studies. The results provide comprehensive evidence that phonological deficits impact both sublexical and lexical stages of spoken word processing and that these deficits cannot be fully compensated through neural re-organization of lexical-distributional information at the single word level. Theoretical and practical implications for typical readers, dyslexic readers, and readers with developmental language disorder are discussed.

An electrophysiological and behavioral investigation of feedback-based learning in aphasia

ABSTRACT Introduction Feedback is a fundamental aspect of aphasia treatments. However, learning from feedback is a cognitively demanding process. At the most basic level, individuals must detect feedback and extract outcome-related information (i.e., feedback processing). Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological differences associated with post-stroke aphasia may influence feedback processing and potentially how people with aphasia (PWA) respond to feedback-based treatments. To better understand how post-stroke aphasia affects feedback-based learning, the current study leverages event-related potentials (ERPs) to (1) characterize the relationship between feedback processing and learning, (2) identify cognitive skills that are associated with feedback processing, and (3) identify behavioural correlates of feedback-based learning in PWA. Methods Seventeen PWA completed a feedback-based novel word learning task. Feedback processing was measured using the feedback-related negativity (FRN), an ERP hypothesized to reflect the detection and evaluation of outcomes communicated via feedback. Individuals also completed neuropsychological assessments of language (phonological processing, verbal short-term memory) and executive functioning. Results PWA elicited an FRN that was sensitive to feedback valence. The magnitude of the FRN was not associated with novel word learning but was strongly correlated with performance on another feedback-based task, the Berg Card Sort. Cognitive variables (information updating, selective attention) but not language variables were associated with novel word learning. Discussion & Conclusion For PWA, feedback processing may be associated with learning in some but not all feedback-based contexts. These findings may inform future research in determining which variables moderate the relationship between feedback processing and learning with the long-term goal of identifying how feedback can be modified to support successful learning during aphasia rehabilitation.

Learning to Read Strengthens Functional Connectivity Between the Ventral Occipitotemporal Cortex and the Superior Temporal Gyrus During an Auditory Phonological Awareness Task.

It is often assumed that phonological awareness only reflects children's phonological skill. However, orthographic representations have been found to be automatically involved during phonological awareness tasks, which we refer to as automatic orthographic activation. Although previous longitudinal neural studies have addressed how phonological processing during phonological awareness tasks is bidirectionally related to reading skill in developing children, we do not know how automatic orthographic activation plays a role in reading skill. To address this gap, we measured 40 children's reading skill and brain activity during an auditory phonological task at two time points using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Children were 5.5 to 6.5 years old at the first time point and were followed up approximately 1.5 years later when they were 7 to 8 years old. We found that earlier reading skill predicted children's later functional connectivity during onset processing between the left superior temporal gyrus, a phonological region, and the left posterior ventral occipitotemporal cortex, an orthographic region representing letters. This finding, together with previous studies, suggests that learning to read influences phonological awareness not only by refining phonological representations but also via strengthening the automatic mapping between phonemes and letters during spoken language processing.

Combined multi-session transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) and language skills training improves individual gamma band activity and literacy skills in developmental dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia is characterized by the pathologically diminished ability to acquire reading and spelling skills. Accurate processing of acoustic information at the phonemic scale is crucial for successful sound-to-letter-mapping which, in turn, is elemental in reading and spelling. Altered activation patterns in the auditory cortex are thought to provide the neurophysiological basis for the inaccurate phonemic perception. Recently, transcranial electrical stimulation has been shown to be an effective method to ameliorate cortical activation patterns in the auditory cortex. In a sample of children and adolescents with dyslexia, we investigated the effect of multi-session transcranial alternating current stimulation delivered concurrently with a phonological training and in combination with a behavioral literacy skills training. Over a 5-week period the participants received 10 training sessions while gamma-tACS was administered over bilateral auditory cortex. We found that gamma-tACS shifted the peak frequency of auditory gamma oscillations reflecting a more fine-grained processing of time-critical acoustic information. This amelioration was accompanied by increased phonemic processing skills. Moreover, individuals who received gamma-tACS showed significant improvements in their spelling skills four months after the intervention. Our results demonstrate that multi-session gamma-tACS enhances the effects of a behavioral intervention and induces long-term improvement on literacy skills in dyslexia.

Phonological Processes Governing Borrowing from English to Lungu, Mambwe, and Namwanga Languages

This article accounts for the phonological processes which govern borrowing from English to Lungu, Mambwe, and Namwanga (LuMaNa) languages. Guthrie (1948) classifies Lungu as M14, Mambwe as M15, and Namwanga as M22. Data were collected using elicitation, comparative, and document analysis methods. The paper employed Lexical Phonology and Morphology, and the comparative Bantu morphophonology theories. The study shows that LuMaNa languages use four major phonological processes to borrow from the English language, namely, epenthesis, sound substitution, metathesis or permutation, and vowel lengthening. Vowel epenthesis is used to create open syllables and break up consonant clusters during borrowing into LuMaNa. Consonant sound substitution is used to modify loanwords through devoicing. LuMaNa languages obey the following general devoicing rules; q/ð→t, q/ð→ f, z → s and defy the rest of the rules. Vowel sound substitution is achieved in LuMaNa through adaptation and nativisation of phonetic approximation. LuMaNa also borrow words through metathesis where two adjacent sounds reshuffle their positions to facilitate ease of articulation. Vowel length is used to borrow words from English to enable words to adjust and fit in the phonology of the target language. The study concludes that LuMaNa have similarities in the application of phonological processes during borrowing.

Comparative analysis of phonological processes in English reading among Sindhi and English-speaking college learners

The research aimed to examine the phonological processes in English and assess the knowledge of phonological sounds among college students. The study utilized authentic newspaper paragraphs in everyday language from the Sindh region as the primary material. Data was collected from 30 young college participants who demonstrated proficiency in both English and Sindhi phonetics, with a specific focus on Received Pronunciation. The findings revealed substantial differences in accents between native speakers and those speaking English as a second language. It was observed that Sindhi English can be regarded as a distinct variety within the broader spectrum of Pakistani English. The study underscored the significant influence of one's first language on their pronunciation of a second language. Native speakers were able to accurately produce sounds even when such sounds were absent in their first language.

Cognitive neural responses in the semantic comprehension of sound symbolic words and pseudowords.

Sound symbolism is the phenomenon of sounds having non-arbitrary meaning, and it has been demonstrated that pseudowords with sound symbolic elements have similar meaning to lexical words. It is unclear how the impression given by the sound symbolic elements is semantically processed, in contrast to lexical words with definite meanings. In event-related potential (ERP) studies, phonological mapping negativity (PMN) and N400 are often used as measures of phonological and semantic processing, respectively. Therefore, in this study, we analyze PMN and N400 to clarify the differences between existing sound symbolic words (onomatopoeia or ideophones) and pseudowords in terms of semantic and phonological processing. An existing sound symbolic word and pseudowords were presented as an auditory stimulus in combination with a picture of an event, and PMN and N400 were measured while the subjects determined whether the sound stimuli and pictures match or mismatch. In both the existing word and pseudoword tasks, the amplitude of PMN and N400 increased when the picture of an event and the speech sound did not match. Additionally, compared to the existing words, the pseudowords elicited a greater amplitude for PMN and N400. In addition, PMN latency was delayed in the mismatch condition relative to the match condition for both existing sound symbolic words and pseudowords. We concluded that established sound symbolic words and sound symbolic pseudowords undergo similar semantic processing. This finding suggests that sound symbolism pseudowords are not judged on a simple impression level (e.g., spiky/round) or activated by other words with similar spellings (phonological structures) in the lexicon, but are judged on a similar contextual basis as actual words.

Parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters revealed by flankers tasks.

An important and extensively researched question in the field of reading is whether readers can process multiple words in parallel. An unresolved issue regarding this question is whether the phonological information from foveal and parafoveal words can be processed in parallel, i.e., parallel phonological processing. The present study aims to investigate whether there is parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters. The original and the revised flankers tasks were applied. In both tasks, a foveal target character was presented in isolation in the no-flanker condition, flanked on both sides by a parafoveal homophone in the homophone-flanker condition, and by a non-homophonic character in the unrelated-flanker condition. Participants were instructed to fixate on the target characters and press two keys to indicate whether they knew the target characters (lexical vs. non-lexical). In the original flankers task, the stimuli were presented for 150 ms without a post-mask. In the revised flankers task, we set the stimulus exposure time (duration of the stimuli plus the blank interval between the stimuli and the post-mask) to each participant's lexical decision threshold to prevent participants from processing the target and flanker characters serially. In both tasks, reaction times to the lexical targets were significantly shorter in the homophone-flanker condition than in the unrelated-flanker condition, suggesting parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters. In the revised flankers task, accuracy rates to the lexical targets were significantly lower in the unrelated-flanker condition compared to the homophone-flanker condition, further supporting parallel phonological processing of Chinese characters. Moreover, reaction times to the lexical targets were the shortest in the no-flanker condition in both tasks, reflecting the attention distribution over both the target and flanker characters. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the parallel processing mechanisms involved in reading.

Observing gesture at learning enhances subsequent phonological and semantic processing of L2 words: An N400 study

This study employed the N400 event-related potential (ERP) to investigate how observing different types of gestures at learning affects the subsequent processing of L2 Mandarin words differing in lexical tone by L1 English speakers. The effects of pitch gestures conveying lexical tones (e.g., upwards diagonal movements for rising tone), semantic gestures conveying word meanings (e.g., waving goodbye for to wave), and no gesture were compared. In a lexical tone discrimination task, larger N400s for Mandarin target words mismatching vs. matching Mandarin prime words in lexical tone were observed for words learned with pitch gesture. In a meaning discrimination task, larger N400s for English target words mismatching vs. matching Mandarin prime words in meaning were observed for words learned with pitch and semantic gesture. These findings provide the first neural evidence that observing gestures during L2 word learning enhances subsequent phonological and semantic processing of learned L2 words.

The Effect of Prefixation on Syllable Structure in Najdi Arabic

This study investigates the effect of prefixation on the syllable and syllabification in Najdi Arabic. It mainly addresses the role of prefixation on the syllable in this variety of Arabic, providing a prosodic representation of it within the context of rule-based phonology. The paper provides a review of the phonological processes that deal with prefixation phenomena in Najdi Arabic, whose domains of application are somewhat subject to syllabification processes and the syllable structure. To achieve this, the paper discusses the three types of prefixation in Najdi Arabic: (a) nominal prefixes, i.e., the definite article /ʔal/ and prepositional prefixes (predominantly fi- ‘in’, and bi- ‘in/at’), (b) the agreement-related prefixes, i.e., verbal prefixes and (c) the adverbial prefix /ʔib-/ ‘with’, which is prefixed to the host noun and changes its grammatical category to an adverb. The results show that each type of prefixation has its own functions, which are essentially related to the type of the host it attaches to. For instance, the prefix /ʔib-/, which is the Najdi Arabic adverbial marker, is a stress-bearing morpheme, given that it is a heavy syllable on its own, which attaches to the initial position at the very beginning of its nominal host.

Language abilities in children and adolescents with DLD and ADHD: A scoping review

PurposeThere is an emerging view that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is marked by problems with language difficulties, an idea reinforced by the fact that ADHD is highly comorbid with developmental language disorder (DLD). This scoping review provides an overview of literature on language abilities in children with DLD and ADHD while highlighting similarities and differences. MethodA comprehensive search was performed to examine the literature on language abilities in the two disorders, yielding a total of 18 articles that met the inclusion criteria for the present review. Qualitative summaries are provided based on the language domain assessed. ResultsThe current literature suggests children and adolescents with ADHD have better morphosyntax/grammar, general/core language abilities, receptive, and expressive abilities than those with DLD. Further, that performance is comparable on assessments of semantic and figurative language but varies by sample on assessments of phonological processing, syntax, narrative language, and vocabulary. ConclusionEvidence presented points to children and adolescents with DLD as having greater language difficulties compared to those with ADHD, but with some important caveats. Despite limitations related to the paucity of studies and inconsistencies in how the two types of disorders are identified, our review provides a necessary and vital step in better understanding the language profiles of these two highly prevalent childhood disorders. These findings are useful in optimizing language outcomes and treatment efficacy for children and adolescents with ADHD and DLD.

Serial Reduplication Is Empirically Adequate and Typologically Restrictive

Wei and Walker (2020) and Zymet (2018) claim that derivational lookahead effects are attested in the interactions between reduplication and other phonological processes in Mbe and Logoori, respectively. On the basis of this evidence, they argue that reduplication in these languages cannot be modeled by Serial Template Satisfaction (McCarthy, Kimper, and Mullin 2012), a theory of reduplication set in Harmonic Serialism. This article refutes these claims and provides serial analyses for both languages. It further identifies a novel prediction of Base-Reduplicant Correspondence Theory (McCarthy and Prince 1994, 1995, 1999), a parallel theory of reduplication, that reduplicants may surface with marked structures unattested elsewhere in the language, and it demonstrates that these patterns are not replicated in serial.

Letters away from the looking glass: Developmental trajectory of mirrored and rotated letter processing within words.

Discrimination of reversible mirrored letters (e.g., d and b) poses a challenge when learning to read as it requires overcoming mirror invariance, an evolutionary-old perceptual tendency of processing mirror images as equivalent. The present study investigated when, in reading development, mirror-image discrimination becomes automatic during visual word recognition. The developmental trajectory of masked priming effects was investigated from 2nd to 6th grade and in adults, by manipulating letter type (nonreversible; reversible) and prime condition (control; identity; mirrored; rotated). Standardized identity priming increased along reading development. Beginning readers showed mirror invariance during reversible and nonreversible letter processing. A mirror cost (slower word recognition in mirrored-letter than identity prime condition) was found by 5th-grade but only for reversible letters. By 6th grade, orthographic processing was no longer captive of mirror invariance. A multiple linear regression showed that letter representations, but not phonological processes or age, were a reliable predictor of the rise of mirror-image discrimination in 2nd-4th-graders. The present results suggest a protracted development of automatic mirror-image discrimination during orthographic processing, contingent upon the quality of abstract letter representations. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We traced the developmental trajectory of mirrored-letter and rotated-letter priming effects (e.g., ibea and ipea as primes of IDEA) in visual word recognition. Beginning readers (2nd-4th-graders) showed mirror invariance and plane-rotation sensitivity in orthographic processing, thus still being susceptible to the perceptual biases in charge in object recognition. A mirror cost was found in 5th-graders but only for reversible letters; orthographic processing was no longer captive of mirror invariance by 6th-grade. The automation of mirror-image discrimination during orthographic processing depends on the quality of letter representations but not on phonological processes or age.

Morpheme-Based Neural Machine Translation Models for Low-Resource Fusion Languages

Neural approaches, which are currently state-of-the-art in many areas, have contributed significantly to the exciting advancements in machine translation. However, Neural Machine Translation (NMT) requires a substantial quantity and good quality parallel training data to train the best model. A large amount of training data, in turn, increases the underlying vocabulary exponentially. Therefore, several proposed methods have been devised for relatively limited vocabulary due to constraints of computing resources such as system memory. Encoding words as sequences of subword units for so-called open-vocabulary translation is an effective strategy for solving this problem. However, the conventional methods for splitting words into subwords focus on statistics-based approaches that mainly conform to agglutinative languages. In these languages, the morphemes have relatively clean boundaries. These methods still need to be thoroughly investigated for their applicability to fusion languages, which is the main focus of this article. Phonological and orthographic processes alter the borders of constituent morphemes of a word in fusion languages. Therefore, it makes it difficult to distinguish the actual morphemes that carry syntactic or semantic information from the word’s surface form, the form of the word as it appears in the text. We, thus, resorted to a word segmentation method that segments words by restoring the altered morphemes. We also compared conventional and morpheme-based NMT subword models. We could prove that morpheme-based models outperform conventional subword models on a benchmark dataset.

Two grammars of A’ingae glottalization: A case for Cophonologies by Phase

AbstractThis paper describes and analyzes phonological processes pertinent to the glottal stop in A’ingae (or Cofán, iso 639-3: ). The operations which the glottal stops undergo and trigger reveal an interaction of two morphophonological parameters: stratum and stress dominance. First, verbal suffixes are organized in two morphophonological domains, or strata. Within the inner domain, glottal stops affect stress placement, which I analyze as an interaction with foot structure. In the outer domain, glottal stops do not have any effects on stress. Second, some verbal suffixes delete stress (i. e. they are dominant). Dominance is unpredictable and independent of the suffix’s morphophonological domain, but dominance and the phonological domain interact in a non-trivial way: only inner dominant suffixes delete glottalization. To account for the A’ingae data, I adopt Cophonologies by Phase (Sande et al. 2020), which (i) models phonological stratification while (ii) allowing for morpheme-specific phonological idiosyncrasies, which (iii) interact with the phonological grammar of their stratum. Stress deletion triggered by the dominant suffixes is modeled with AntiFaithfulness (Alderete 1999, 2001). Antifaithfulness to a metrical foot entails antifaithfulness to its features (glottalization). This captures the fact that only the inner dominant suffixes delete glottal stops.

Long-Term Outcomes for Individuals With Childhood Apraxia of Speech.

The study's primary aims were to describe the long-term speech outcomes for adolescents and young adults with a history of childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) and to examine the association of persistent speech sound errors with measures of literacy skills, phonological processing, motor speech production, and parent report of early motor difficulty. Data from a large longitudinal 25-year study were used to explore outcomes for 32 individuals with a history of CAS, ages 12;6 (years;months) to 25 years (M = 17.4, SD = 4.7). Persistent and nonpersistent groups were compared on decoding, phonological processing, multisyllabic word repetition, diadochokinetic rate, and parent report of motor involvement. Parametric (Welch's t tests) and nonparametric tests (Wilcoxon and Fisher exact tests) were used to identify differences between the groups' distributions. Developmental trajectories of speech production were plotted. Outcomes for individuals with CAS are highly variable, with some demonstrating speech sound errors into adolescence and young adulthood. Speech sound errors were primarily on later developing sounds. Persistence was significantly associated with early motor difficulties. Difficulties with multisyllabic words, phonological processing, and literacy were often present regardless of persistence or nonpersistence of speech errors. Children with CAS are at risk for persistent speech sound errors into adulthood. For children showing limited progress with more traditional speech therapy, alternative interventions should be explored. Individuals with persistent speech sound errors are more likely to have a history of early motor deficits. Regardless of persistence, participants with CAS demonstrated ongoing weaknesses in literacy, phonological processing skills, and complex speech production tasks.