Phonetic Point Of View Research Articles

Birchbark letters from Veliky Novgorod and Staraya Russa excavations of 2021

The article contains a preliminary publication of seven birchbark letters of the 12th — first half of the 15th centuries found during the archaeological season of 2021 in Veliky Novgorod (Nos. 1136–1141, 1144) and the letter No. 52 from Staraya Russa. Especially interesting in their contents are No. 1137 (early 15th century) — a fragment of a large letter telling the story of a captured thief and his bail, No. 1139 (early 12th century) — a vivid example of a “proto-document” drawn up as a letter; No. 1141 — a fragment of a collective petition written in a famine year. From the phonetic point of view, the spellings робьжь and ети (No. 1137) are remarkable. Lexically significant are the earliest attestations of the agricultural term перелогъ (No. 1136), the verb перемчати (No. 1137), the use of the verb заповѣдати in the meaning ‘to announce publicly about sth’ previously known only from the Russkaya Pravda, the personal name Пька, which is etymologically a present participle of печи (No. 1139), the name Шелва (Staraya Russa, No. 52) that finds parallels in the Hypatian Chronicle and is apparently of Turkic origin. Of high value for historical syntax are: the first vernacular record of the predicative нѣ in combination with the infinitive with the meaning of impossibility; the use of the particle ни with the meaning ‘and there is not’, which finds a parallel in the 10th-century Old Bulgarian Glagolitic amulet; a rare example of the nominative with the imperative: въспиши ми грамота (No. 1144).

The phonology of calls in Ladin: Towards a unified account of chanted vocatives in Romance

This paper investigates the prosody of stylized calls of Badiot Ladin, a ­Rhaeto-Romance variety spoken in the Badia Valley (Eastern Alps). A Discourse Completion Task was used to elicit 108 utterances from six native speakers of Badiot. The results show that, from a phonetic point of view, the calling melody consists of a low F0 stretch, followed by a rise to high in the stressed syllable, a high plateau in pre-final unstressed syllables (in proparoxy­tones names only), and a mid-plateau in the final unstressed syllable, whose nucleus is considerably lengthened. After comparing the stylized intonation of Ladin with the same contour in other Romance languages, we argue that this contour can be represented phonologically as L+H* !H%, while the presence of the two plateaus can be explained by means of tonal spreading. We tentatively suggest that the final lengthening can be interpreted as the result of the presence of a prosodic mora aligned with the nucleus of the final syllable.

Birchbark letters from Veliky Novgorod excavations of the year 2020

The article is a preliminary publication of fourteen birchbark letters found in Veliky Novgorod during the archaeological season of 2020. With the exception of Nо. 1135 (mid-12th century), the published documents date back to the 14th — first half of the 15th century. Despite the fragmented state of most of the texts, their overall content can be plausibly reconstructed. The most important historically are No. 1122/1123 — a draft of a testament, where a number of characters known from the chronicle and charters can be identifi ed, and No. 1132 — a fragment of a petition mentioning the troops sent to Zavolochye. Also noteworthy are two letters written by the same hand, No. 1128 — an offi cial declaration of damages caused by the construction of a dam, and No. 1130 — a note accompanying a batch of sturgeon. In No. 1131, the address formula of a private letter is continued by a glossolalic text of obscure pragmatics. From a phonetic point of view, the following phenomena are signifi cant: вьѥстка (No. 1132) is a rare case of refl ecting the diphthongic pronunciation of /ě/ in writing; ево (No. 1124) is an early example of the transition from /g/ to /v/ in the Gen. sg. masc.-neut. ending of pronouns and adjectives; the allegro form хошь (No. 1126). A new syntactic pattern is discerned where a group of relatives is described by a simple juxtaposition (на Ѻсташки на єго дѣтехъ ‘Ostashka’s [and] his children’s [debt]’). In the fi eld of vocabulary, the following features are remarkable: the previously unknown name for the measure of volume лубъ-пятерикъ (No. 1122/23), an early example of the expressive diminutive pattern as in шатришко (No. 1126), a bookish adverb поистинѣ used in a business document (No. 1128), the word хребетъ denoting sturgeon balyk (No. 1130), a reconstructed collocation сѣрая куна ‘grey marten’ (No. 1133) — a parallel to the черная куна ‘black marten’ known from Povest’ Vremennykh Let, and the earliest occurrence of the word розметъ ‘breakdown of payments’(No. 1135).

Emigration from Russia in the post-Soviet period as a pattern of evolution of the national Russian language

The focus of the article is the history of the Russian emigration. Awareness of the history of Russian emigration makes it possible to trace what changes have occurred with the national Russian languages in the framework of the historical events of the XX – XXI centuries. The aim of this work is to analyze the history of Russian emigration in the post-Soviet period. The author in the article describes the distinctive characteristics inherent in each wave of emigration, referring to the data of Rosstat, presents quantitative statistics on the number of emigrants from Russia. The waves of emigration are depicted from the point of Russian language usage there. Each wave is described from linguistic, grammar and phonetic point of view, proved by exact facts of grammar constructions, lexical units, highlighting the impact of the Russian language in emigration to the Russian language in the metropolis. Besides historical and linguistical descriptions, the author of the article is trying to give a sociological portrait of average emigrant for each wave.

Percepção audiovisual da entoação modal do português do Brasil

Este artigo investiga a identificação perceptiva audiovisual da entoação de quatro atos de fala do português do Brasil, com os seguintes significados pragmáticos: asserção, questão-eco, questão parcial e exclamação. Dez informantes (5 homens), falantes da variedade do Rio de Janeiro, foram gravados e filmados, produzindo esses quatro atos de fala, com base na sentença Como você sabe. Analisaram-se, do ponto de vista fonético, as pistas acústicas que distinguem esses atos de fala em relação aos parâmetros acústicos (F0, duração e intensidade) e, do ponto de vista visual, as unidades de ação (Action Units) que compõem as respectivas expressões faciais. Uma análise quantitativa dos dados foi realizada, o que permitiu verificar que há pistas acústicas e visuais que caracterizam a produção dos quatro tipos de enunciados. No experimento perceptivo, sessenta participantes tinham que identificar os quatro atos de fala em três condições experimentais de apresentação dos estímulos: somente áudio (A), somente vídeo (V) e áudio combinado com vídeo (AV). O maior índice de acertos foi verificado na condição audiovisual (AV), seguido da condição somente áudio (A) e, por fim, da condição somente vídeo (V). Esses resultados confirmam que ouvintes integram as informações vindas do canal auditivo e do canal visual na tarefa de identificar perceptivamente diferentes tipos de enunciados no português do Brasil.

The Experimental-Phonetic Analyses of the Discourse Intonation in the English and Azerbaijan Languages

The article deals with the experimental-phonetic analyses of the discourse intonation in the English and Azerbaijan languages. Having researched the article, it becomes clear that discourse intonation (DI) is an approach to the teaching and analysis of everyday speech. The characteristics of intonation components in the formation of discourse have been touched upon in the article. The intonation is mentioned to be one of the main means in the formation of the discourse. 
 
 It is a known fact that speech styles can be characterized by their lexical, syntactic and phonetic features. The attention is drawn to the distinguishing points of the speech of the people having various professions such as the speech styles of a teacher and a driver should be different not only from the lexical point of view but also from the phonetic point of view. 
 
 During the conversation, one can come across some nuances of the speaker’s intellectual level, life experience and social status. It is also important to remember that the subject of the conversation is meant to be an important factor too. The object of the conversation ensures the stylistic formation of the idea.
 
 The importance of the experiment has been taken into a special consideration in the article as well. The opinion of academician L. V. Sherba that stresses the importance of the experiment has been analyzed by the author.
 
 The factors that are needed to be followed by while carrying out the language facts have been fulfilled in the article. 
 
 The author tries to prove that DI is concerned with the speakers’ moment-by-moment context-referenced choices. It recognizes four systems of speaker’s choice: prominence, tone, melodicy, and termination. 
 
 The discourse samples having been chosen for the experiment are fulfilled by using various sentence types. Besides, the inside structure of the sentences and their lexical contents are also taken into account in the article. 
 
 Some discourse samples have been chosen in the comparable languages to be experimented in order to distinguish the intonation nature of the discourse. The experiment has been carried out by using the program “Praat”. It is noteworthy to mention that the program “Praat” is known to be a computer operation used to analyze speech sounds.

Fonètica històrica versus història lèxica. El cas de "saloma" < kéleusma `cant dels mariners

Le mot grec kéleusma "chant des mariniers" est passé en ltalie sous plusieurs formes: celoma, scialoma etc. Elles sont attestées depuis le XIVe siècle, et toutes ont une consonne initiale palatale. Le catalan saloma et le verbe correspondant salomar (1436) ne sont vraisemblablement pas autochto­nes, mais pris de l'italien. La question se pose surtout pour l'espagnol çaloma (fin du XVIe siècle; plus tard zaloma): du point de vue phonetique il ne peut pas s'agir pour ce dernier d'un emprunt direct de l'italien, ni même du catalan. Cependant, l'histoire lexicale des termes hispaniques (cat. saloma, esp. et portg. zaloma) contredirait ce que les "lois phonetiques" exigent: pour ces mots nautiques, soumis aux avatars de la "lingua franca", on ne devrait pas faire jouer une stricte rigueur linguistique. A en juger par les attestations recueillies, le point de départ vers l'espagnol serait la Catalogne. Néanmoins l’exposition des données philologiques objectives tirées d'une abondante documentation écrite et dialectale permet d'étaler la complexité du problème.

F0 declination of intonation groups in Spanish and in Mandarin Chinese

AbstractMandarin Chinese and Spanish are the first two languages in the world by number of speakers. The interaction between speakers and thus between the two languages increases day by day. There are more and more Chinese students who study Spanish and Spanish students who study Chinese. At the same time, difficulties arise from the teaching-learning process, particularly with regard to phonetics, and more specifically the intonation, as they are two typologically-different languages. However, there exist very few comparative studies between them.This article seeks to explore the global declination of intonation groups in Spanish and Mandarin Chinese and we found similarities and differences between these two languages. To do this, we created a corpus of 278 isolated and unmarked sentences and 140 neutral paragraphs in Mandarin Chinese (totally 651 sentences), while in Spanish we used data from previous studies. The corpus was recorded by nine native speakers, three men and six women.We approached this study from a phonetic point of view and used the Garrido model (Garrido 1996,2001,2010) to compare the declination effect on the two languages according to different factors such as sentence type, the position of the intonation group within the utterance and length of the group.We also proposed for future study some possible methods for teaching Chinese and Spanish intonation as a second language.

The Effect of Reading Aloud Strategy on Listening Comprehension in EFL Context

본 연구는 외국어교육 상황에서 영어 읽기교육의 효과적인 전략으로서 ‘소리내어 읽기전략’을 논의하고, 그 전략의 인지적 측면을 분석하며, 소리내 읽기가 듣기 이해도에는 어떠한 영향을 주는지를 밝히는데 그 목적이 있다. 소리내 읽기 전략은 문자언어를 음성언어로 전환하여 읽기를 할 때 나타나는 인지적 발달과 이해력 향상을 증명하고 있다. 소리내 읽기는 의미단위 끊어 읽기, 연음, 억양과 톤의 변화, 영어 자음과 모음의 음소인식을 이해하고 훈련함으로써, 외국어 학습에서 목표언어를 효과적으로 이해하는 중요한 전략이 되고 있다. 또한, 본 논문에서는 실험을 통해 전통적인 묵독 집단과 소리내 읽기 집단의 듣기 이해도를 비교 분석하고, 소리내 읽기집단의 듣기 수행과정에 대한 질적 평가를 통해, 목표언어의 음성학적인 부분의 학습효과를 논의한다. 그리고 영어학습에서 소리내 읽기가 듣기이해에 미치는 영향을 알아보기 위해, 통제집단과 실험집단을 각각 사전평가와 사후평가로 나누어 실험한 결과, 소리내 읽기 집단이 묵독 집단에 비해 상대적으로 큰 향상을 보인다.This study aims to investigate reading-aloud strategy and look into its effects on listening comprehension in EFL context. Reading and listening are the skills in the comprehension category, while writing and speaking in the production category of the language four skills. In this regard, reading can be a significant tool to improve listening competence. As an alternative method of reading strategy, reading aloud plays a crucial role in comprehending texts from cognitive and affective point of view. This study discusses various aspects of reading-aloud strategy and then its benefits. And in the experimental study, twenty Korean college students were divided into two groups: The one is the control group involved in the silent reading method and the other is the experiment group administered in the reading-aloud strategy. Each group was taught English reading materials for four months and after the reading instruction, the listening comprehension questions were given to students. Compared with the pre-test in the listening comprehension, the results of post-test were superior to those of pre-test from a phonetic point of view. In addition, the qualitative research about the phonemic awareness for the listening comprehension are carried out. And this study analyzes the listening process through the reading-aloud strategy and its benefits as well.

Internal and Comparative Reconstruction in Yawalapiti: Palatalization and Rule Telescoping

This paper presents an investigation of the historical phonology of Yawalapiti, an Arawak language spoken in central Brazil. After internal reconstruction is applied to a set of alternations observed in the language, comparative evidence for the proposed reconstructions is addressed. The alternations in question can be loosely described as involving some sort of palatalization process, but the adequacy of this label is obscured by some properties that make these alternations unnatural from a phonetic point of view and highly morphologized. It is shown that these alternations can be seen as the result of developments starting with phonetically transparent, allophonic rules of palatalization of the kind seen in other southern Arawak languages. Additional hypotheses on the historical phonology of the language are also advanced and argued for using comparative evidence.

The Intonation of Absolute Questions of Brazilian Portuguese

In this paper we describe three melodic patterns of absolute interrogatives from a phonetic point of view, obtained from a corpus in Goias (Brazil). The patterns are: a) Rising Final Inflection (30% to 52%), b) Rising-Falling Final Inflection, c) High Nucleus Final Inflection. These patterns have been established from the acoustic analysis and standardisation of 55 questions and from the verification of their validity in a perception test. We compared them with interrogative patterns obtained in different parts of Brazil and also in two Romance languages, Spanish and Catalan.

Verb Structures and Their Phonetics Comparative Study in Sabzevarian Dialect and Persian Language

In this paper, the verbs in Mazi (past tense) are presented in Persian language and Sabzevarian dialect for a detailed comparison of their structures as well as their similarities and differences. The result of this study shows that although there are some similarities between two sources but there also exist some important differences among them from the structural and phonetic point of view.

Aspectos prosódicos temporais da leitura de escolares com dislexia do desenvolvimento

OBJETIVO: Analisar, do ponto de vista fonético, por meio de medidas acústicas e perceptivas, os aspectos prosódicos temporais presentes na leitura em voz alta de escolares com e sem dislexia, a fim de identificar diferenças de desempenho entre os dois tipos de leitores que possam apontar para características peculiares da dislexia. MÉTODOS: Gravação da leitura de um texto por 40 escolares (entre nove e 14 anos, cursando da 3ª à 5ª série), sendo 10 disléxicos (grupo clínico) e 30 escolares sem queixas de alterações de aprendizagem (grupo não-clínico). Os dados foram analisados perceptivamente e acusticamente, utilizando-se o programa WinPitch. As seguintes medidas foram realizadas: duração e localização das pausas, tempo total de elocução, taxa de elocução, tempo de articulação e taxa de articulação. RESULTADOS: Em comparação com o grupo não-clínico, o grupo clínico apresentou maior número de pausas e pausas mais longas; os valores obtidos para as taxas de elocução e de articulação indicaram respectivamente menor velocidade de leitura e uma lentidão na produção de cada gesto articulatório. CONCLUSÃO: As dificuldades identificadas no processamento da leitura pelas crianças com dislexia dificultam a organização prosódica na leitura de um texto.

Problemas na variante tensa da fala carioca

Este trabalho retoma o papel de ruptura desempenhado pela obra Para o Estudo da Fonêmica Portuguesa (1953), no contexto acadêmico brasileiro dos anos 50, fundamentado no contraste com as "Normas para a boa pronúncia da língua nacional no canto erudito", estabelecidas em 1937 pelo Congresso da Língua Nacional Cantada. Parto da suposição de que há continuidade entre o ponto de vista fonético e o ponto de vista fonêmico no que diz respeito a problemas empíricos tratados pelas duas linhas de pesquisa, mas defendo que há descontinuidade no que diz respeito ao modo de tratar os dados fônicos.

The spectral analysis of syllables in patients using dentures.

Changes in the oral cavity resulting from the loss of teeth and the ensuing reconstruction of a set of teeth by dentures (partial or complete) may cause changes in the speech and voice of the patient. The aim of the present investigation was to study the changes in speech and voice in patients suffering from teeth loss and the degree of speech improvement using dentures. Voice and speech parameters of a set of tested syllables were analysed in 10 patients at the 2nd Clinic of Stomatology. The analysis was carried out by means of an FFT, SoundForge 5.0 programme. Differently expressed acoustic changes in both consonants and vowels were ascertained in a percentage of the patients under examination. These concerned especially the sibilant ("s", "(see text)"), labiodental ("f", "v") and vibrating ("r", "(see text)") consonants. Changes in the FFT spectrum and air leakage in constrictive consonants were also found. In some patients the vowels, especially the closed ones ("i", "u"), may change their fundamental frequency and show noise admixture manifested as a blurred delimitation of the formants. A denture should, inter alia, render it possible for the patient to produce the same articulation to which he/she had been accustomed before the loss of teeth. For the construction of dentures the most important factors from a phonetic point of view appear to be the following: overbite, overjet, the height of the plate, the thickness of the palatal material, the incisor position, and the modelling of the ruga palatina on the hard palate. In case of wrong denture construction the acoustic changes may continue, resulting in the patient's stress load dependent upon sex, age, psychic condition and seriousness of the problem.

The intonation of monosyllabic Hungarian yes-no questions

The paper examines the intonation of monosyllabic Hungarian yes-no questions, which, according to the literature, is different from the intonation of polysyllabic Hungarian yes-no questions. The paper's conclusion is that the difference is only phonetic, not phonological. From a phonological point of view, such questions carry a rising-falling intonation pattern, just like their polysyllabic counterparts. This is proved by the facts of contour concord, which we can observe between the melodies of so called equivalent blocks in Hungarian sentences (Varga 2002, 100-2). From a phonetic point of view, however, the falling part of the abstract rising-falling pattern is normally truncated, leaving only a rise. The final fall (in the form of a downglide) is optionally preserved in surprised monosyllabic yes-no questions, when the syllable has a long vowel in it, able to accommodate the downglide.

The phonology of Armenian By Bert Vaux (review)

REVIEWS The phonology of Armenian. By Bert Vaux. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Pp. 280. Reviewed by Amalia Khatchatrian, Yerevan This impressive book is actually the first comprehensive examination of the sound system of Armenian in its two literary forms—Eastern and Western Armenian—and particularly its numerous dialects. The investigation is unique in that it has been carried out from a definite theoretical position—the methods and argumentation of rules and representation theory (RRT)—a modernized version of generative phonology. Clearly structured and well substantiated it not only makes strong theoretical claims but also presents detailed analysis ofa number ofphonetic issues hitherto viewed separately or unexplained. From the traditional point of view, however, this is a phonology without time and space. The Saussurean dichotomy between synchrony and diachrony is no more relevant for the author. He freely makes use of facts of Classical Armenian and dialects as well as modem literary language referring to different epochs and geographical areas. The book consists of eight chapters. The first one, Survey of Armenian phonology, elegantly summarizes the essence of the book and points to specific sections in which more detailed analysis and arguments are given. It is clearly written and presents the contemporary state of Armenian phonetics and phonology. Based mainly on East Armenian, it deals with 36 dialects (7-8). Under the paragraph 'Historical dialectology' Vaux concentrates on the most important linguistic innovations in Armenian since the post-classical period, particularly in phonology, in which a series of consonant shifts have occurred. V succinctly summarizes the vast linguistic literature and the discussion waged in Voprosyjazykoznaniya, on this issue thus making available the results of Armenians' work to Western readers. One may wonder about the author's extensive and solid comprehension of such a wide range of linguistic and factual material on Armenian. Ch. 2 exposes the theoretical background of the book and the innovations the author has brought in RRT worked out by a group of linguists at Harvard University. The essence of this theory is well described in literature (Halle and Marantz 1993, Kenstowicz 1994, Calabrese 1995, and others). V applies a modified version of it which includes the idea of hierarchical structure of phonological features and a graphical organization of these features in a tree-like structure which reflects the vocal tract configuration. V often makes references to other authors for some more new ideas (sensitivity, markedness, cyclicity). Much effort is exerted to justify the features ATR and RTR (advanced and retracted tongue root) widely used in RRT theory. Ch. 3, the core ofthe book, presents a most comprehensive study ofsyllabification in Armenian. Its depth of analysis far surpasses other descriptions of the problem and observes it from a new viewpoint. Indeed, one is amazed at the richness of data that the author was able to analyze while uncovering the wealth of dialectal facts, even doing some field work. Syllabification in Armenian, a vast field of research, is closely connected with the rules of reading. The apparent discrepancy between the orthography and pronunciation may seem striking, but it is governed by the rules which are being taught at school and are presented in a simplistic way, sometimes even conflicting with the pronunciation. From the phonetic point of view, the consonant clusters have not been tackled since phonetically they cannot be considered as such. The first linguist who examined this problem phonologically was Bella Gulakian1 whose name, surprisingly, is not mentioned in the book, though she put forward a view very close to the one expressed in this book. In discussing the interrelation between underlying representation and phonetic representation, 1 Tackling the phonological system from the positions of transformational grammar Bella Gulakian excluded the vowel h/ from the vocalic system of Armenian, a conclusion coinciding with the one expressed in this book (p. 70 and elsewhere) 433 434LANGUAGE, VOLUME 76, NUMBER 2 (2000) V proceeds from the premise that the graphical form of words is actually the underlying representation in which all the relevant features of sounds are represented. The changes in orthography that have taken place in both Standard East Armenian (SEA) or West Armenian (SWA) are not taken into account; thus, final mute j, which is not preserved...

Limits on phonetic integration in duplex perception.

The telling fact about duplex perception is that listeners integrate into a unitary phonetic percept signals that are coherent from a phonetic point of view, even though the signals are, on purely auditory grounds, separate sources. Here we explore the limits on the integration of a sinusoidal consonant cue (the F3 transition for [da] vs. [ga]) with the resonances of the remainder of the syllable. Perceiving duplexly, listeners hear the whistle of the sinusoid, but also the [da] and [ga] for which the sinusoid provides the critical information. In the first experiment, phonetic integration was significantly reduced, but not to zero, by a precursor that extended the transition cue forward in time so that it started 50 msec before the cue. The effect was the same above and below the duplexity threshold (the intensity of sinusoid in the combined pattern at which the whistle was just barely audible). In the second experiment, integration was reduced once again by the precursor, and also, but only below the duplexity threshold, by harmonics of the cues that were simultaneous with it. The third experiment showed that the simultaneous harmonics reduced phonetic integration only by serving as distractors while also permitting the conclusion that the precursor produced its effects by making the cue part of a coherent and competing auditory pattern, and so "capturing" it. The fourth experiment supported this interpretation by showing that for some subjects the amount of capture was reduced when the capturing tone was itself captured by being made part of a tonal complex. The results support the assumption that the independent phonetic system will integrate across disparate sources according to the cohesive power of that system as measured against the evidence for separate sources.

Hausa glottalic consonants: a laryngographic study

The Chadic (Afroasiatic) language Hausa, spoken mainly in Nigeria and the Republic of Niger, has a series of ‘glottalic’ obstruents. This includes both ejectives ([k’], [s’] or [ts’]; orthographic κ,ts) and two other consonants which have often been described as ‘implosives’ and are represented by the IPA symbols for implosives in Hausa orthography (б,d). In addition, there is a ‘laryngealized’ palatal glide (orthographic ‘y). The description of orthographic б,das implosive has been called into question, however. Ladefoged, in his well-known work on the phonetics of West African languages (Ladefoged (1964: 16)), suggested that, while these sounds may on occasion show the ingressive air flow characteristic of implosives, their most consistent characteristic is a distinctive mode of vocal fold vibration (phonation type) known as creaky voice or laryngealization; thus, Hausa б anddshould be labelled ‘laryngealized stops’ rather than ‘implosives’. One implication of this change in descriptive label is that, at least from a phonetic point of view, б anddshould be grouped with ‘y.

Consonant gemination in Buginese

The articulation of consonant gemination in Buginese is to some extent different in continuants and in stops. Since the continuants s, r, /, ra, , and ng are produced with only partial or incomplete stricture of the articulatory cavities, their articulation, including the production of sound, can be continued for some time, and in gemination is continued for approximately twice as long as in non-geminated pronunciation. The articulation of stops involves a complete stricture of the oral and nasal cavities, which is released almost immediately after its onset in non geminated pronunciation, but is held approximately twice as long in gemination of the voiceless stops p, t, c, and k. In this case no sound is produced during the continuation of the stricture. A similar articulation would be expected for gemination of the voiced stops b, d, j, and g; but this is not normally the case in Buginese. Only sporadically is a pronunciation heard in which the stricture is briefly held before its release and at the same time the voicing is briefly continued. In normal practice, however, a glottal stop is added before the voiced stop instead, as was discovered by A.A.Cense and his Buginese assistants in the thirties. In accordance with these phonetic, articulatory facts, it has become accepted usage to indicate gemination of continuants and voiceless stops in romanized transcription with duplication of the single graphemes, and to provide voiced stops with a preceding glottal stop (indicated by an apostrophe here). In the case of the continuants and the voiceless stops, however, gemi nation is only one way of describing the facts. Some authors have argued that consonants which here are called 'geminated' consonants or 'gemi nates' in fact are prolonged or long consonants, and have either written them with a prolongation mark (n:, /?:, t:, etc.), or have treated them as a separate category of consonants, to be distinguished from the short ones, and accordingly have reproduced them with special graphemes ( , , T, etc.). From a strictly phonetic point of view there is no objection to such a procedure, because the phenomenon of continuation for twice the time of pronunciation of the single phoneme can in fact be described both as gemination (twice the same) and as lengthening. A practical objection is, however, that this way the consonant system is burdened with ten more consonant phonemes, or at the least with a special mark of prolongation. It is preferable, therefore, to consider these consonants not as long ones but as geminates, and to represent them in writing with double consonant characters. In a similar way, gemination of continuants and voiceless stops on the one hand, and preglottalization of voiced stops on the other, are two