Age Of Enlightenment Research Articles

I. I. von Felbiger and the creation of the European school education system

Introduction. One of the most important conditions for the success of any type of activity is its systematic nature. This statement fully applies to such an important area of the spiritual life of society as education. The creation of the educational system in Europe is associated with the name of the outstanding teacher-reformer Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724-1788), who vividly proved himself as a scientist, founder of educational institutions, author of important documents and textbooks that for many decades determined the content and nature of schooling in European countries and in Russia. Materials and methods. The author uses the following research methods: analysis of historical and pedagogical literature, biographical and historical methods, an axiological scientific approach to the study of the value content in the activities of I. I. von Felbiger. The work uses publications by foreign and Russian authors. Results. The period of I. I. von Felbiger's life and his organizational activities coincided with the age of Enlightenment, which led to an increase in interest among a significant part of the population of many European countries in science and its practical use in the interests of society, as well as to the problems of educational development. I. I. von Felbiger acted as the organizer of educational institutions designed for various groups the population and the levels of training of students. He substantiated the idea of the first public school system in history and partially implemented it into practice. Over time, this system, which in some countries was called Sagan, became generally accepted in Europe. His ideas were developed in the process of creating a school education system in the Russian Empire. Discussion. Von Felbiger's activities in the field of education were multifaceted. He carried out the practical management of the educational institution, was a teacher, the general commissioner for education of the whole country, and finally, he created valuable legislative acts that received approval from the monarchs and ordinary teachers. He also authored methodological and educational manuals for teachers that corresponded to the current needs of society. Conclusion. The famous educational reformer von Felbiger left a vivid mark on the history of European science and culture. He went down in the history of pedagogy as the creator of the Sagan school system. The history of his life and work, as well as the genesis of the first education system he created in Europe, deserve further comprehensive study.

O discurso iconográfico como signo das Luzes: o frontispicio da Encyclopédie e a obra de Mestre Ataíde

French Enlightenment thought developed its own iconography. Mestre Ataíde, a prominent Brazilian artist from the colonial period, had engraving manuals in his library, including plates from the Encyclopédie. A comparative analysis of the compositional structure and lines of force of the Frontispiece of the Encyclopédie (Cochin, 1675) and the works Ascension of Christ (1806) and Assumption of the Virgin (1804), both by Mestre Ataíde, suggests the potential presence of Enlightenment symbols in their iconography. Based on this premise, it is expected to contribute to studies that connect French Enlightenment ideals to Brazil in the 19th century.

The classical and modern trends of interaction between European philosophy and medicine

The interaction between European philosophy and medicine during historical periods of the New Time, the Enlightenment era and XX-XXI century is highlighted in the article. Special attention is paid to the influence of research in the world outlook and motivation basis of human activity, conducted by the main philosophers of the classical and modern time; on the formation of theoretical and axiological basis of modern medicine, as well as the concept of interrelation of human’s mental and physiological health. The main aspects of theoretical research in ontology (or metaphysics), gnoseology (epistemology), methodology, social philosophy and ethics connected to medicine theory and practice are also discussed in the article.

Kant and the smallpox inoculation

Smallpox was an endemic, very contagious disease which caused a high mortality rate during the age of enlightenment. In order to counter act this epidemic, smallpox inoculation was developed. This technique consisted in the inoculation of infected pus taken from a sick person into a healthy one in order to prevent the risks of natural smallpox infection. It was in this context that a German doctor in charge of inoculation wrote to Kant twice in 1799, and again in 1800, to ask him if inoculation was morally permissible. Kant wrote a draft of an answer, but it was never completed or published during his lifetime. These drafts provide elements of an answer that he nevertheless refused to give explicitly in the Doctrine of Virtue (1797) where the question of the morality of inoculation remained unanswered.

Voltaire FRS: His career as a scientist

Abstract Voltaire is remembered as one of the leading thinkers of the European Enlightenment, often quoted today for his views on free speech and religious toleration. In his lifetime he also enjoyed a reputation as a scientific thinker. His Éléments de la philosophie de Newton, published in 1738, did much to further understanding of Isaac Newton in Europe and led to Voltaire’s election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. He even tried his hand at experimental research and briefly entertained an ambition to become the Permanent Secretary of the French Académie des sciences. The plan came to nothing, but Voltaire’s presentation and promotion of Newtonian physics was enormously influential and has continued to this day to influence our understanding of Enlightenment scientific thinking.

Нужен ли философской антропологии «социогенетический поворот»?

Philosophical anthropology, which arose each time in a specific historical reality, sought to create a universal image of man, calling this process the revelation of his essence. This problem was solved by Russian philosophy, which developed the Orthodox Christian tradition within certain historical boundaries. Modern philosophy, solving this problem, cannot ignore the basic philosophical and anthropological ideas of different civilizations, primarily Eastern, Western and Russian philosophy. The space for their comparison and synthesis can be the semantic conceptual field of sociogenesis, which opens up a universal approach to the formation of a human being as a global cultural and biological species. The sociogenetic approach reveals the opportunity to compare two main essential models of man, which are represented by the version of the self-sufficient individual, which developed in the European Enlightenment, and the version of the conciliar (communal) man, the discussion of which began in Russian philosophy of the 19th century. In the context of sociogenesis, the basis for distinguishing anthropological versions is the opposition of individualistic and communal (conciliar) principles of behavior. A specifi c synthesis of these principles in one or another cultural-historical model appears as a solution to the contradiction between the individual and species model of behavior within the cultural-biological species “human being”. In the natural world, the coordination of individual and species behavior is resolved through the genetic inheritance of species behavior, eliminating the conflict between species and individual. The sociogenetic evolution of a human being has posed the task of searching for species-specifi c universal principles of behavior, which has complicated the solution of the problem of harmonizing species and individual behavior. The complexity of the situation is that human behavior is directed by cultural programs in the context of a sociogenetic search for a species program capable of ensuring the global consolidation of the human species. In this context, philosophical anthropology requires a sociogenetic support, and the appeal to it can be called the “sociogenetic turn” in philosophical anthropology.

Interiors in the Age of Enlightenment: A Cultural History

Interiors in the Age of Enlightenment: A Cultural History

Some Factors Influencing Legal Continuity in the Age of Enlightenment

In this article, certain factors that influenced legal continuity during the Age of Enlightenment are discussed. The major processes of the period are analyzed, and the importance of legal traditions as the foundation of legal continuity is highlighted. A brief overview of the key approaches to understanding legal traditions is given. Particular attention is paid to the regional divergences of the Age of Enlightenment, with a focus on its specifics in England and later Great Britain, the German and Italian states, France, Russia, and the USA. It was revealed that all factors can be divided into two groups. The first group includes general conditions, circumstances, and prerequisites, which can be further classified into natural and social ones. Natural factors are largely unaffected by the landscape of the period, while social factors are closely tied to society. The factors pertaining to the Age of Enlightenment are part of the latter group. They are of two types. The first type is not actually related to the legal reality of the period. The second type reflects the Enlightenment political and legal doctrines. Conclusions are drawn about the direct and indirect impacts of these factors on the historical processes. It is also demonstrated that the factors of legal continuity formed a unique combination in each studied society, with their influence apparent even after the Age of Enlightenment.

Contradiction in Kant’s Hierarchical Racism and Egalitarian Humanism

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), a prominent and influential German Enlightenment philosopher, believes that white people are superior to non-white people. He divides mankind into four groups: "white" (Europeans), "yellow" (Asians), "black" (Africans), and "red" (American Indians). Kant claims that other races, except the white race, are unable to acquire moral maturity due to a lack of talent (a gift of nature). He argues that whites themselves have all the motivation and talents, while blacks can receive education, but only as slaves. Native Americans cannot receive an education, they don't care about anything, they are lazy. This contradicts his egalitarian humanism. He proposes the belief in universal democracy and categorical moral imperative, where he argues that everyone should be seen and treated as “ends”, not as means to an end. One should also act as one would want all other people to act towards him or her, and according to the maxim one would wish the action to be a universal law. This paper adopts the laws of thought, that is, the principle of identity, the principle of non-contradiction, and the principle of excluded middle to interrogate and evaluate the consistent tenability of Kantian hierarchical racism on one side and egalitarian humanism, espoused in categorical imperative, on the other side. The conclusion is that there is a contradiction.

An enlightened aristocrat at the crossroads of countries and languages

This paper focuses on the personality of an important aristocrat from the Age of Enlightenment, Ignác Dominik Chorynský, as a person living and acting on the border of countries and languages, creating an extensive network of social and intellectual contacts around him. The vast personal archive of this nobleman conserved in Opava still awaits closer examination. Ignác Dominik Chorynský, a member of an old Moravian family, settled after 1750 in Velké Hoštice under Prussian domination, due to his marriage to Countess Barbora Hodic, while also being active in Opava, on Austrian territory. This paper examines the “frontier” position of Ignác Dominik from several aspects. The first is from the political aspect: the count was a subject of the King of Prussia and, at the same time, a regional governor in the Prussian and Austrian parts of Opava, still subordinate to the House of Habsburg. Moreover, his brother Jan Nepomuk fell in the Seven Years’ War against Prussia. Obviously, the position on the border also played a role in the representation of the count, as evidenced by the “Banquet Hall of Three Lands”, which he had built in Velké Hoštice. In the following portion, this paper presents Ignác Dominik’s wide network of contacts: amongst the local nobility in Silesia, amongst actors on the Prussian side (Frederick II, the nobles and intellectuals of Wrocław), and in Moravia (his brothers Matyáš and František Jan, Count Mittrowsky, etc.). This paper then delves into the theme of artistic transfers, as Ignác Dominik contributed to the cultural development of his region with his activities (building the castle in Velké Hoštice, rebuilding the so-called “Blücher Palace” in Opava, collecting works of art, etc.). Finally, this paper focuses on the possible role of Silesian and Prussian milieu on Ignác Dominik’s cultural activities. This paper also demonstrates the unique position of the Opava and Hlučín regions after the Wars of Austrian Succession and the imminent role of Ignác Dominik and his close friends in the cultural development of the region.

The Realization of Ceramic Industry Reform and the Theory of National Wealth Technology in the National Newspaper of the Period of Patriotic Enlightenment(1900-1910) : Focusing on HwangseongShinmun and DaehanMaeilSinbo

The Realization of Ceramic Industry Reform and the Theory of National Wealth Technology in the National Newspaper of the Period of Patriotic Enlightenment(1900-1910) : Focusing on HwangseongShinmun and DaehanMaeilSinbo

“Heard Melodies are sweet, but those unheard are Keatsean”: Linguistic Blind Spots in Ode on a Grecian Urn

John Keats’s famous Ode, although well-received by the critical fraternity at large, continues to baffle many, as it anxiously unites the ekphrastic with the epigrammatic, the unheard with the overheard, and most controversially, beauty with truth, towards its end. The blind spot, created through an inapparent harmony is, I argue, the result of a misreading of Keatsean ideology in general. Ode on a Grecian Urn is the product of an intellectual and ideological entanglement with the philosophers of the German Enlightenment, especially Friedrich Schlegel, whose On the Study of Greek Poetry (originally published in 1797) remains the most prominent influence of Germanic Hellenization on Keats. Furthermore, the Ode must not be read as an allusive perpetuation of aforementioned influences, but a conscious departure from it, vis-à-vis allusion and the false consciousness of reality birthed within the linguistic perfection of epigrammatic utterances in the poem. This is complicated by the manifold references to psycho-physiological exhaustion across the poem whose origins, I emphasize, are to be comprehended linguistically, for Keats carefully resists third-order ideology through punctuated lines and their subsequent parentheses, where Keatsean counter-argument exists in-between ideologically approved, rhetorical exuberance and pauses that should ideally symbolize an inside-out reading, or reading the text backwards. Particular emphasis is laid on the second and fifth stanzas of the Ode, and the connotative implications of words like “goal”, “cloyed” and “wilt”. Through close-reading and textual analysis, I further argue how Keatsean resistance often exposes the written lie without uttering the textual truth. By way of a conclusion, I shall present the different adaptations of an apparent dialectic harmony between “beauty” and “truth” amongst the Victorians, early and late, but also how the transcendental illusion of dialectic harmony, in essence, is the mutual contradiction of an antinomian sublime, fabricated to indulge in the false consciousness of Germanic Hellenization while re-textualizing itself palimpsestically in an analytic reading. Keywords: Greek Poetry; Keats; Grecian Urn; Germanic Hellenization; Ideology

How are Mozart’s Operas Indebted to Enlightenment Ideals?

This paper undertakes a rigorous examination of the Enlightenment ideals embodied within Mozart's operas and their subsequent influence. Mozart's musical compositions were profoundly shaped by the Enlightenment era, reflecting the aspirations of freedom, democracy, and equality. The article points out that Mozart incorporated cultural elements and enlightenment ideas from different countries into his opera creation, especially his work Don Giovanni was deeply influenced by cultural traditions, combining musical tragedy with comedic characteristics. The article also mentions that Mozart embodies the idea of equality in the Enlightenment through the assignment of roles in the opera, and each character has the opportunity to have direct contact with Don · Giovanni, showing the directness and equality of the characters. In addition, the article discusses how Mozart spread the ideas of the Enlightenment through his opera, and how his operas reflected the spirit of freedom, reason, and openness. "Don Giovanni" can become his masterpiece, through careful character shaping and musical stage design, it conveys the core values of the Enlightenment, has a profound impact on the society at that time, and has become a classic in the history of music.

Civilization in the Face of Sociology

The article is a brief overview of the concepts that exist in sociological science from the moment of its inception to the present and related to civilizational issues. The peculiarities of this branch of knowledge, which arose during the Great Industrial Revolution, in the era of the formation of nation-states, led to the fact that for a long time sociologists did not use a civilizational approach, the idea of civilization prevailed as a certain stage in the development of society, opposing “barbarism”, in the age of Enlightenment (F. Guizot), and in the twentieth century (N. Elias). At the same time, it is possible to identify a certain attitude to civilizational issues in Marxism, and in an alternative approach to it, which the author calls technological (D. Bell, O. Tofler with J. Gelbraith adjacent to them), and in the concept of the “world-system” by I. Wallerstein, and in geoeconomics by F. Braudel. The article analyzes the contribution to the sociology of civilizations of the classics of the civilizational approach (N.Y. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, P. Sorokin). Special attention is paid to the “civilizational turn” in sociology in the 1970s, primarily related to the works of Sh. Eisenstadt and continued at the beginning of the XXI century by Aronson, as well as the concept of Russian civilization in the works of sociologists D. Nielsen and I. Yakovenko. The article raises theoretical questions about the civilizational approach from a sociological perspective, first of all, the scientific possibilities to identify specifically cultural and value cores of various civilizations, including Russian, to define Russian civilization in relation to the concepts of Eastern Christian civilization and Soviet civilization, as well as the degree of its universalism and autarkism.

PERCEPTION OF THE VALUES OF THE PREVIOUS ERA IN THE PARADIGMS OF « PROMINENT PHILOSOPHERS AND WRITERS

Disputes about the “uniqueness” of one’s era in comparison with the achievements of previous ones have always been a “cornerstone” in the perception of past concepts regarding the values of the achievements of predecessors. However, at one time, Confucius said his world-famous phrase that if you don’t look back, there is no way forward. But many people are not interested in their past. That is why the “Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes” in the form of a literary debate, centered on a comparison of the value of the contributions of ancient authors and French authors of the 17th century, and which was widespread at the time, is still relevant today. The purpose and objectives of the article. The purpose of the article is to highlight the perception of the values of previous eras in the paradigms of “non-contemporary” prominent philosophers and writers. The tasks of the article are to reveal the reasons for the primordial disputes about “ancient and new”, a natural return to ancient literature and ancient philosophy. Research methodology. The leading research methods were: content-comparative - to analyze the reliability of judgments of French writers of the 17th century; retrospective, which helps to investigate the phenomenon of the value of “the ancient in the new” in the century-old controversy, the method of personalization, which ensures the study and understanding of the works of S. Perrault and his contemporaries. The results. It’s no secret that the tasks of art in the Antiquity, Middle Ages and Modern times differed greatly. For Antiquity, every craftsman was an artist, while the activity of a painter and sculptor was a more complex craft. It is typical for that time that there was almost no idea about creativity and the creative act, but despite this, the ancient Greeks were able to create immortal examples of art. The art of the Middle Ages was supposed to embody a moralistic character and remind of the eternal, the art of romanticism saw godlike creativity as its goal. The art of the 20th century presented its ideal in the denial of everything that the previous era saw as its goal, periodically declaring the death of art. Based on the fact that today there are many different ideas about the goals and tasks of modern art, we cannot say with full confidence what is the common goal of the art of our days, and it is even more difficult for us to imagine how art will live, for example, through a hundred years. Conclusions. So, we can come to the conclusion that in the era of the early Enlightenment, the attitude to the ancient heritage, in particular in France and England, was not unambiguous even among the educated aristocracy or university professors who knew Greco-Roman works well enough. This is clearly evidenced by the century-old dispute “about ancient and new”, which caused a lot of auxiliary discussions. Undoubtedly, even today arguing and debating about the art of previous eras and our own has a place in philosophy and literature, and they continue to do this with success for more than one hundred years. But to prove the rightness of one of the sides of these disputes is a sufficiently dubious matter for science.

한국의 기독교 선교가 독립운동에 미친 영향

The purpose of this study was to look at the devaluation of Christianity and its alienation from the people and ask, “What is the meaning of Christianity being introduced into Korean society, and what impact has it had?”. In the process of accepting Christianity, the analysis focused on political and social situations, economic and religious situations as acceptance factors. Politically and socially, the pressure for reform and opening by Western powers, the signing of treaties, and the introduction of new systems were analyzed. In terms of the economic situation, the economic impoverishment suffered by the people of countries that failed to adapt to world historical changes and quickly accept the culture of modernization explained. In addition, referring to the suppression of Catholicism in the process of introducing Catholicism and the failure of the Catholic introduction process in the religious situation, various methods were tried and the situations in which the gospel was gradually spread were explained. It was pointed out that Christianity had a great influence on the modernization of Korea during the Enlightenment period, including the spirit of patriotism and love for the people, prohibition of discrimination between people and books, and the abolition of the caste system. In addition, the fundamental reason for the acceptance of Christianity was that it was recognized as a powerful religion that made wealth possible, and thus the gospel expanded from the powerless ruled class to the ruling class. Meanwhile, Christianity had a great influence on the March 1st Independence Movement, and the changes in the consciousness of the Joseon people due to Christian missions were examined through the establishment of independence association branches, differences in active participation, and a confession written by a nobleman. In addition, we looked into the teachings of Christianity, focusing on the subject of the independence movement, the purpose of the movement, and the methods of action in the independence movement as shown in the Declaration of Independence, and the relationship between Christianity and the role of the March 1st Movement and Christian schools. Lastly, it concludes that in the face of the decline of Christianity, which had a great influence during the turbulent times of Korean history, the Korean people need to know and learn about history.

Jang Ji-yeon s view of modernity/nation and women s education viewed through textbooks in the modern enlightenment period

Jang Ji-yeon s view of modernity/nation and women s education viewed through textbooks in the modern enlightenment period

Is the Modern State Compatible with Islam?

The Impossible State: Islam, Politics, and Modernity’s Moral Predicament. Wael B. Hallaq, New York: Columbia University Press, 2012. This book examines compatibility between the modern state and Islam. The author, Wael B. Hallaq, argues that the modern state, which are the result of the European enlightenment project, is incompatible with Islam because it lacks the moral and ethical standards sanctioned by Islam.

A Colonial Book Market: Peruvian Print Culture in the Age of Enlightenment

A Colonial Book Market: Peruvian Print Culture in the Age of Enlightenment

Central Asia in Russian descriptions of the 18<sup>th</sup> century: On an anonymous note from the non-church calendar of the Enlightenment Era

There is a lot of interest in travelogue in the research environment today. Russian oriental travelogues, associated with the Central Asian region, have not been studied sufficiently before, besides a certain number of substantive works primarily of a historiographical nature. A special body of problems here is related to the origins of the Russian Central Asian travelogue formation as a genre structure. One of the texts, related to the “origins of the genre” and taken for consideration in this article, is a note by an anonymous author-compiler entitled “News of Bukharia”, published in the “Monthly Historical and Geographical Dictionary for 1779” (St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences). The article is a kind of commentary on this note. We characterize the journal in which it was presented – the printed secular calendar of the 18th century, it differs from the religious ones. The article determines historical, cultural, landscape and geographical realities, reflected in it, and identifies the ideological position of the compiler in the context of the eastern imperial policy of those years. We cautiously assume that when writing the text, the author could use materials on Central Asia from Western sources. There is no literary element as such in the described note. This is not a travelogue in the exact meaning of the term, but a concise informative essay on a regional topic, in which, however, there is no strategy for an objective scientific narrative (“pure curiosity”). We can clearly see the journalistic (state) ideologems of its era, combining the economic aspirations of Russia and its geopolitical attitudes (it is significant that in the note the reader he does not even find any ethnographic images of Central Asian people, their portraits, morals and everyday habits). At the same time, the text of the “News of Bukharia” includes separate general literary components– strict composition, laconism of speech style and logical sequence. The text is important as an early stage in the formation of a scientific and artistic Central Asia modus, as a phenomenon of “documentary literature”, not “fictional literature”.