Phenomenological Research Methodology Research Articles

Changes in Time Perception and Coping Strategies in Young Adults With Cancer: A Qualitative Study.

A cancer diagnosis is a traumatic event. Youths, in the most crucial stage in a person's life course, are more susceptible to the influence of cancer. The diagnosis disrupts the original life and time plans of young adults with cancer, resulting in a reconstruction of time perception and changes in coping strategies. The aim of this study was to explore the changes in time perception and coping strategies in young adults with cancer. A phenomenological research methodology was used in the qualitative study. Thirty-one young adults with cancer were recruited. Semistructured interviews were conducted with them, and the interview data were analyzed using Colaizzi's 7-step analysis method. The study revealed 3 themes related to changes in time perception: perceived alterations in the speed of time, changes in remaining available time, and shifts in time preferences. Five themes were identified regarding coping strategies for changes in time perception: self-regulation of emotions, establishing spiritual beliefs, planning time effectively, returning to family life, and closure of the inner self. Identifying changes in time perception among young adults with cancer through the speed of time, remaining available time, and time preference and guiding patients in adopting positive coping strategies can offer more effective cancer support and care for patients. Healthcare professionals should pay attention to the changes in time perception in young adults with cancer and guide them to cope positively.

Needs, Experiences, and Hopes for Aging Futures among Older Adults in the LGBTQ Communities: A Qualitative Study in Israel

Older lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals tend to live alone, mostly without children and with scarce support from nuclear family members or biological kin. Moreover, traditional resources may not suit their specific end-of-life care needs. While studies have examined these topics in general, they lack focus on end-of-life needs, care, and planning in Israel. Moreover, research on this topic among members of LGBTQ communities is specifically lacking. This study, therefore, aimed at identifying and understanding the attitudes, perceptions, and meanings of older LGBTQ individuals in Israel regarding their needs and challenges, as they age and near end of life. The phenomenological qualitative research methodology was applied, following the interpretive approach. Twenty-one middle-aged and older LGBTQ individuals in Israel, aged ≥ 55, participated in the study. In-depth semi-structured interviews, conducted from November 2020 to April 2021, were audio-recorded, transcribed, and de-identified. Five themes emerged from the interviews: (1) Experiences of loneliness, marginalization, and trauma, and coping through liberation; (2) ageism and exclusion of older adults; (3) elastic and challenging relationships; (4) end of life as reverting into the closet and heteronormativity; and (5) death as a source of generativity and creativity. The study demonstrates that loneliness is an existential experience, exacerbated by the intersectionality of LGBTQ communities. In turn, chosen family members play a minimal role in the end-of-life care of their loved ones. While conveying ambivalence toward social services and housing for the aging, participants in this study expressed fear of being discriminated against and having to re-enter the closet as they age. Ageism and end of life do not represent finality and extinction, yet instead, signify hope and revival. Following Sandberg and Marshall’s (2017) concept of queering aging futures, this study refines our understanding of life courses, demonstrating that living and thriving in old age could be positive and desirable. As such, ageism and end of life do not necessarily represent finality and extinction, and may instead signify hope and revival. The unique challenges associated with family and social support of older adults who are LGBTQ members, and their implications on care, deserve further research and are important for practice.

Psycho-Social Factors Influencing Exclusive Breastfeeding Among the Primigravida Mothers at a Public Hospital in the uGu District, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Primigravidae, first-time mothers are generally inexperienced at motherhood, which affects breastfeeding initiation and intent. Therefore, they need frequent professional and social support that must be clinical and practical for successful exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) outcomes. The study aimed to qualitatively explore the psychosocial factors influencing exclusive breastfeeding among primigravida mothers at a public hospital in the uGu District, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa. A qualitative phenomenological and explorative research methodology was used to conduct the study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 purposive sampled primigravida mothers from the postpartum ward from day one today to four post-delivery. Data was collected until saturation was reached. Based on Bandura's Self-Efficacy and Social Cognitive Theoretical Framework, the study has shown that personal, social, and environmental factors strongly influence maternal attitudes toward breastfeeding efficacy. Five significant themes that emerged from the data analysis were (a) factors influencing maternal self-efficacy, (b) challenges to EBF, (c) cultural influence on EBF, (d) the role of support systems to EBF, and (e) breastfeeding support strategies. The study showed that stakeholders need to apply critical clinical interventions if South Africa reaches the global nutritional target of 50% EBF by 2025. These include healthcare workers (HCWs), Policymakers, Employers, the Department of Health, the Department of Education, the Department of Labour, and the Department of Social Services. Access to child support grants, social services, ARVs through mobile clinic services, and frequent face-to-face antenatal care were among the study's recommendations to address doubts, fears, and anxieties around EBF intent, practice, and duration.

Navigating Linguistic Landscape: Understanding Students Engagement in English Language Learning Within An Pesantren Setting

This research aims to explore the level of student engagement in English language learning (ELL) in an Islamic boarding school, utilizing a phenomenological research methodology. The study's primary objectives are: firstly, to understand how students subjectively interpret and experience their engagement in ELL activities within the boarding school setting; secondly to analyze the contextual factors present in the Islamic school environment that students believe impact their engagement; and finally, to examine how students perceive the harmony or potential discord between the teaching and learning of English and their religious and cultural beliefs. The results of the study have been divided into three main themes: students' perspectives on engagement in the ELL, contextual factors in the educational environment, and perceptions of harmony/discord between ELL and religious beliefs. These findings highlight the complex linguistic dynamics that exist within pesantren settings, emphasizing the need for tailored pedagogical strategies to be formulated and implemented. This discussion emphasizes the necessity for a thorough investigation that takes into account the perspectives of different stakeholders and the specific contexts of institutions to understand the intricacies of the language learning process in the distinct setting of pesantren. This research project has the potential to make a significant contribution towards the development of culturally sensitive and inclusive language learning environments.

Enhancing the Role of the Special Branch of Aisyiyah (PCIA) Malaysia in Providing Education and Financial Literacy Services for Indonesian Migrant Worker Families

The purpose of this qualitative study is to investigate how Indonesian migrant worker families might benefit from improved financial literacy and educational services provided by the Special Branch Leadership of Aisyiyah (PCIA) Malaysia. Using a phenomenological research methodology, the study explores participants' lived experiences and perspectives about PCIA Malaysia's role. In order to address social concerns, the research equalizes engagement between practitioners and service partners by implementing the Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) technique. A group from Muhammadiyah University in Makassar carried out the study, which also included semi-structured interviewing, thematic analysis, case study design with purposive or snowball sampling, and the definition of important research topics. Results from Kuala Lumpur's community involvement initiatives highlight issues like poor financial literacy and restricted access to education. Financial issues arise as a result of implementation challenges, even though members are knowledgeable about financial planning. Financial literacy programs, more PCIA leader involvement, and educational awareness campaigns are suggested remedies. The report emphasizes the critical role that PCIA plays in resolving the various issues that Indonesian migrant worker families confront, with a focus on areas such as community involvement, financial literacy, education access, and training programs. A focused approach, proactive community involvement, and continual assessment are necessary for success in order to provide long-lasting beneficial results.

Psychological Experience of Correctional Officers’ Treatment of Mentally Ill Prisoners: Phenomenological Study

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to find out the meaning of the psychological experience of correctional officers’ treatment of mentally ill prisoners and describe its essential structure.Methods: The Colazzi's phenomenological research methodology was used. Nine correctional officers participated in this study. To collect data, in-depth individual interviews were conducted from September 4 to October 3, 2023.Results: Four clusters of themes were identified; “feeling daunted by unawareness of mental illness”, “darkness caused by the tangle of vines inside the correctional facility walls”, “determined to overcome and face it head-on”, and “warmth emanating from the custody of mentally ill prisoners.”.Conclusion: Through the psychological experiences of correctional officers in dealing with individuals with mental illness, it was possible to understand the demands of knowledge, attitudes, and skills related to mental illness, as well as psychological and mental stress. It is necessary to establish an educational program and crisis response protocol for correctional officers to cultivate knowledge, attitudes, and skills related to mental illness, and to activate the mental health promotion program currently being implemented in correctional facilities.

Exploring Community Participation in Prevention and Care of Tuberculosis from Patients’, Healthcare Providers’ and Community Member’s Perspective, In Wolayta Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. A Qualitative Study

Background: In developing countries, tuberculosis (TB) continues to be the major cause of morbidity and mortality. To reduce the loss of lives and economical burden that TB poses up on citizens, early case detection and successful treatment of infected cases are very essential mainly with active community participation in prevention and care of TB. This study was aimed to explore community participation in prevention and care of TB in Wolayta Zone of SNNPR, Ethiopia. Method: Descriptive phenomenological research methodology was employed in the study. A total 24 participants were chosen using purposive sampling technique. Participants in the study were from various sections of society. Of these, 14 were TB patients on TB treatment and former TB patients who were recovered, 8 were health professionals and 2 were Key Informants which were selected from the community to provide key information. Data were gathered through focus groups and in-depth interviews. Using the Open Code and Colaizi 7 steps of descriptive phenomenological method data analysis was used. Interviews were audio recorded, verbatim transcribed, translated, and exhaustive description was written. Results: Community participation in prevention and care of TB in study area was high. Preventive participation and supportive participations were identified and these participations have their own goals in TB prevention and care. Preventive participation has focused on early case finding strategies like referring the suspect cases for TB diagnosis and contact tracing. Supportive participation has focused on treatment success such physical, economical, psychological and social supports which increase the patients adherence to treatment and as result increases treatment success rate. Conclusion. Our study revealed highto moderate community participation in tuberculosis prevention and care in the the study area. The finding is that the TB prevention and care strategy for eliminating TB will be operationally effective. In cumulative effect, the region might be able to meet the WHO's recommendations for the community TB prevention and care plan, which call for case notification of more than 70% and an 85% success rate for treatment and all seek to eliminating TB by 2030. Therefore, the study emphasizes the necessity for effective communication to be established between community and the health institutions. To further raise TB notification and treatment success rates, all feasible methods of utilizing community participation in TB care are advised.

Grade 4 Rural Learners' Views and Learning Experiences That Address Social Justice in Postapartheid South Africa

The complexity and dynamic nature of rural contexts and schools present intricacies for teaching and learning practices, understanding the challenges learners experience, as well as the overall educational achievements within the South African context. We argue that learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon that occurs within communities, making it important to explore the strengths, diversity, as well as learning challenges presented by the rural context to learners given that they learn in rural schools and classrooms daily. The symbolic interactionism framework was used to understand emergent meanings in the process of interacting with primary school learners, and how learners made sense of their experiences of learning in rural schools. A qualitative phenomenological research methodology was espoused to unearth learners' experiences of the rural contextual conditions in relation to learning. Photo-elicitation group interviews were used to collect data from eight learners from three different schools, and the data were analysed using a thematic approach. The findings revealed that children are aware of the conditions that shape their learning in rural schools. The information provided by the learners shows that much is yet to be done by the postapartheid government to address issues of equity and social justice through education in South Africa.

“Why am I here?”: A phenomenological exploration of first‐generation college student experiences in STEM majors within a predominantly white institution

AbstractFirst‐generation college students (FGCSs) are a growing population in undergraduate education. Research on FGCS primarily focuses on the challenges and barriers they encounter in college. While important, this literature offers a limited view of FGCS as learners. Moreover, minimal literature has examined these students' lived experiences within sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This study explores the learning experiences of FGCS (N = 17) in undergraduate STEM programs at a mid‐sized, private, predominantly white institution. Guided by the frameworks of intersectionality and social cognitive career theory, the researchers utilized a qualitative, phenomenological research methodology to hear the perspectives of FGCS to and to identify problematic higher educational structures in STEM. Findings point to an elitist stance underlying STEM programs based in general disciplinary norms that restricted FGCS access to STEM majors and careers across social, academic, and professional elements of the academic experience. FGCS who were multiply minoritized based upon race, gender, and social class experienced the compounding of marginalization, and academic success and persistence came at a personal cost. Students also reported relying predominantly on personal strengths and motivations to overcome elitism in STEM rather than on institutional supports. Findings also highlight the variation in the first‐generation experience and identify the unique barriers FGCS encounter within STEM fields. Implications for dismantling inequitable structures for higher education in STEM attending to the social, academic, and professional inclusion of FGCS.

Experience of Peer Supporters for Patients with Schizophrenia

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to understand the experience of peer supporters for patients with schizophrenia and identify the meanings of their experiences.Methods: Eleven participants were included in this study. Giorgi’s phenomenological research methodology was used. The data were collected between August, 2022 and January, 2023 through in-depth individual interviews.Results: Four clusters of themes were identified. “Overcoming fear and managing one’s own life”, “A lot of mountains to overcome, but I'm going over them”, “A confident appearance in the world”, and “Being part of the treatment team”.Conclusion: Individuals with schizophrenia and peer supporters should be integrated into the treatment team by implementing appropriate policies. Education programs should also be provided accordingly. In addition, it is very important to develop a program that can train peer supporters among schizophrenic patients and expand patient management services that can help them recover from the disorder. These efforts will help patients with schizophrenia achieve vocational and social rehabilitation.

From Uncomfortable Squirm to Self-Discovery: A Phenomenological Analysis of the Bracketing Experience

Bracketing (also called epoche) is fundamental in phenomenological philosophy and is a widely recognized practice in phenomenological and other qualitative research methodologies. Bracketing definitions, types, and procedures still generate debate among contemporary phenomenological methodologists and other qualitative researchers. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the dialogue about the topic of bracketing with empirical research on one of its forms. In this study, we analyzed self-reflection reports of doctoral students who had engaged in a bracketing interview and subsequent group analysis. Our results show that the bracketing process can be an educational and revelatory experience for the novice researcher including heightening awareness of their presuppositions and other commonly discussed benefits in the literature. An unanticipated finding includes the powerful effect of bracketing as a springboard to developing a researcher identity. Being understood and validated by the research group was a unique experience for participants that helped to dispel student feelings of being an impostor and/or inadequately prepared to conduct doctoral research. Implications for improving the bracketing process for novice researchers include clear communication prior to bracketing and explicit instruction on research journaling.

영어유치원에 자녀를 보내는 어머니들의 경험에 대한 현상연구

Objectives This study aims to investigate the cultural phenomenon of early English education through interviews with three mothers who chose English kindergartens through phenomenological research methodologies.
 Methods The participants in this study are three mothers who are sending their children to an English kindergarten at the time of the interview. As a data collection method, open-ended and semi-structured interview techniques were used. The contents of the interview were recorded and then transcribed. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with questions about the motivation for sending to English kindergarten, mothers' beliefs about early English learning, and mothers' perceptions of their children's English kindergarten experience. Interviews took an average of 90 minutes, and telephone interviews were adopted, considering the mother's convenience.
 Results The motives of mothers who send their children to English kindergartens are as follows. Children's desire to learn English in nature, English as an area that mothers cannot teach, early English learning as an investment in the future, and positive attitude toward American English textbooks. In addition, mothers had a positive attitude toward their children's early English learning but also had awareness of the importance of their mother tongue. Mothers positively recognized early English learning based on their beliefs gained from past English learning experiences and recognized early English learning as the first step for the CSAT. Mothers felt satisfied through the evaluation of their children's English proficiency.
 Conclusions A parent's beliefs determine when and how a child learns English, and a mother's beliefs greatly influence a child's English learning. Therefore, it is necessary to think from the child's point of view, not the parent's, whether the child has difficulties learning English or what kind of thoughts the child has.

THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND ADAPTATION POLICY OF BUFFET RESTAURANT UNDER PANDEMIC SITUATION

The objectives of this study are: 1) to learn the opinions of entrepreneurs regarding the adjustment of buffet restaurant business in Bangkok under the epidemic situation; 2) to suggest a guideline for the adjustment of buffet restaurant business in Bangkok under the epidemic situation. The study used phenomenological research methodology by collecting data with in-depth interviews using semi-structured interviews from key informants of buffet restaurant entrepreneurs to apply with a descriptive analysis. The results showed that most entrepreneurs pay more attention to cleanliness in the on-site restaurants and use social media as an additional channel to help their business grow quickly. Moreover, there are suggestions for adaptation using TOWS Matrix format, including: 1) Strengths and Opportunities strategy (SO) is a proactive marketing in offering products and services via social media; 2) Weaknesses and Opportunities strategy (WO) is using information technology in buffet restaurants and limiting the number of daily customers; 3) Strengths and Threats strategy (ST) is building consumer confidence in the quality and safety of businesses; 4) Weaknesses and Threats strategy (WT) is using online channels to create awareness and transfer to delivery platform.

Paid caregivers' experiences of falls prevention and care in China's senior care facilities: A phenomenological study.

In China, as population aging accelerates, senior care facilities have gradually become a mainstream option. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the annual rate of falls has increased from 30 to 50% in senior care facilities. A study found that older adults who live in senior care facilities are three times more likely to fall than those who live in the community. The quality of care is highly related to the occurrence of falls. Therefore, exploring paid caregivers' experiences is very important to prevent falls in senior care facilities. The aim of this study was to explore paid caregivers' experiences of fall prevention and care in China's senior care facilities. Furthermore, we discussed the situation and provided suggestions. This is a phenomenological study using face-to-face, in-depth, semi-structured interviews. The study was conducted at four senior care facilities in Changsha, Hunan, China. Fourteen paid caregivers in four senior care facilities, including nursing assistants and senior nurses, participated in this study. A purposive sample method was used to select 14 nursing assistants and senior nurses from four different senior care facilities in Changsha from March to April 2022. Every participant individually completed a face-to-face, in-depth, semi-structured interview. Based on the phenomenological research methodology, the thematic analysis method and the Colaizzi analysis method were used for data analysis and theme extraction. Based on interview data, a total of seven themes were distilled: (1) paid caregivers' professional requirements; (2) paid caregivers' attitude toward falls; (3) paid caregivers' fall training and education; (4) paid caregivers' knowledge about falls; (5) paid caregivers' fall risk assessment; (6) paid caregivers' fall prevention; and (7) paid caregivers' fall treatment. In China's senior care facilities, paid caregivers to need to be responsible and pay appropriate attention to older adults. First, senior nurses and nursing assistants need to enhance communication and cooperation. Second, they must learn about deficiencies in fall risk assessment and try their best to improve their capability. Third, they must adopt appropriate education methods to improve fall prevention capability. Finally, the protection of privacy should be taken seriously.

The Impact of Intimate Partner Violence on Women in Criminal Courts: Beyond the Victim-Survivor Dichotomy

ABSTRACT The experience of violence directly impacts abused women’s sense of self. This study explores the identity construction processes of women who have experienced intimate partner violence. It mainly focuses on analyzing how being involved in violent relationships and going through the criminal justice system has impacted women’s self-perception. The participants were twenty-three women residing in Spain (aged 23–65) whose cases had been reported and prosecuted. In-depth interviews were conducted to collect their experiences based on a phenomenological qualitative research methodology. Results showed that the victim-survivor dichotomy does not enable us to capture the diversity and complexity of women’s experiences. The construction of their identity is, to a large extent, influenced by the psychological impact of the criminal process. The expectations derived from the stereotyped conception of the ideal victim and the ambivalent messages they receive from various social agents also play a crucial role. The findings’ clinical, societal, research, and policy implications are discussed.

Self-Care Experiences of Family Members of Mentally Ill Patients

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to find out the meaning of self-care experiences of family members of mentally ill patients and describe its essential structure.Methods: The Giorgi's phenomenological research methodology was used. Six families participated in this study. In-depth individual interviews were used to collect data from October to December in 2021.Results: Five clusters of themes were identified. They were “Selfless life”, “Life on shaky grounds”, “Attempts to escape from the suffering”, “Moving forward on self-care path”, and “Happiness blooming in being together”.Conclusion: The findings suggest that mental health care professionals should provide educational programs to enable families of patients with mental illness to recognize the necessity for self-care and discover ways to take care of themselves. In addition, it is necessary to develop policies to expand patient management services at mental health welfare centers so that families of patients with mental illness can secure time for self-care.

Being seen: The lived experience of psychodynamic practitioners disclosing or not disclosing sight impairment

ABSTRACT The taboo of therapist self-disclosure and literature addressing disclosure and disability issues from a psychodynamic perspective is explored. Research on disclosure decisions among physically impaired practitioners is limited. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis qualitative research methodology was employed to understand the lived experience of psychodynamic practitioners with sight impairment to understand disclosure decision-making processes in a therapeutic setting. Six participants self-identified as sight impaired psychodynamic practitioners and were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Findings showed that the experience of working as a practitioner with sight impairment is a tenacious endeavour, requiring high levels of self-awareness and determination in navigating the minefield of self-disclosure, daring to be seen by others, holding the patient’s need to be seen and journeying through loss and acceptance of the changing self. Results showed that there is an inverse relationship between likelihood to self-disclose sight impairment and the extent to which practitioners work with unconscious process and transference. Ultimately, the capacity to reclaim disavowed parts of the self, defined therapists’ ability to make therapeutic disclosure decisions. Suggestions for future research, clinical and ethical implications are provided plus recommendations for impaired practitioners and those who work with difference.

Barriers and Facilitators of Working with Dying Patients among Novice Nurses in Saudi Arabia.

Novice nurses face immense challenges while they transition from being students to becoming professional nurses. Dealing with dying patients has been documented to be an immense task among professional nurses, especially for new nurses. This study aimed to explore the barriers and facilitators of working with dying patients, experienced by novice nurses in Saudi Arabia. This study employed a phenomenological qualitative research methodology among the nurses who participated in this study, which were twelve participants, of various ages, genders, religions, and nationalities, who took part in semi-structured focus group discussions. The identified barriers included a lack of experience with dying patients; a language barrier with patients and medical staff; inadequate staffing; and patients' responses or cooperation. Furthermore, the facilitators were categorized into three themes: caring/compassion, teamwork/collaboration, and mentors/experienced colleagues. Based on the findings of this study, an action plan must be developed to improve the experience of novice nurses in Saudi Arabia, and to minimize the impact of the barriers on the new nurses when working with such patients.

Street Clown Phenomenon: Contradictory Presence of Beggars Dressed In Character Costumes In Banjarmasin City

Banjarmasin has a serious problem with unemployment. According to data from the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) of the City of Banjarmasin, the togetherness rate in the city of Banjarmasin rose by 0.78 percent between 2019 and 2021, with the COVID-19 pandemic playing a role. This forces individuals to adapt in order to continue facing life's challenges. One of the occupations chosen by the residents of Banjarmasin is that of the street performer. The concept used by street clowns in the city of Banjarmasin originated from the criteria of clowns themselves, which is that the clown is a supporting character by displaying interesting, funny, and endearing choreography and is now a clown who only sits while displaying facial expressions that beg for mercy from people. This study seeks to determine the motivations behind a person's decision to become a street clown and the significance of their emergence. The researcher employs Max Weber's Social Action theory and Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory in the analysis. This study employs a phenomenological research methodology. According to the findings of this study, someone becomes a street clown because one of their needs is unmet. Moreover, the public considers the presence of street clowns to be extremely disturbing. Since their practise has reached a crossroads. Therefore, it can endanger both motorists and clowns. Some consider street clowns beggars due to their practice of displaying a pitiful face to solicit money from the community. But the children had a different perspective; whatever face the clown saw was entertaining to them. This implies that the street clown has multiple meanings, depending on how the actor interprets the street clown's actions.

An Attempted Integration of Urban Utility and Historic Value

Bosnia Herzegovina had experienced some significant events of its history during the Bosnian War. Bosnia Herzegovina was one of the epicenters of devastating war causing severe damage and casualties. In Mostar, the conflict scenario was particular during the “siege of Mostar” in 1992 and then again later in 1993 to 1994. Mostar landfill was used as a prominent dump-yard of martyrs during the war. After the historic event, Mostar has still to face many difficulties in the field of environmental management. The landfill is one of the most important sanitary landfills in Bosnia Herzegovina and holds the tearing memories of the war. At the same time, it holds both the memories of mass murders and its significance as an urban utility. Waste management is one of the primary ecological issues in post conflict areas. Due to the war affected situations and political unstable settings, environmental crisis becomes eminent. The notion of this research is to develop a probable design structure to integrate an urban utility (Landfill) and post conflict emotional correspondence. Phenomenological Qualitative research methodology was used to figure out the bridges between these two discrete phenomena.