Phenomenological Psychological Method Research Articles

Fathers’ Lived-Experience of Childbirth: A Descriptive Phenomenological Psychological Inquiry

Better understanding fathers’ psychological experience of birth is essential to encouraging empathetic care. Using Giorgi’s 5-step descriptive phenomenological psychological method for analysis, the general psychological structure of what it is like for fathers to experience being involved in the birth of their first-born biological child was uncovered. Five fathers’ descriptions of the phenomenon, collected via nonstructured phenomenological interviews conducted over several months, were analyzed rigorously through descriptive phenomenological psychological reduction and free imaginative variation. The stable general psychological structure consisted of the following constituents: (1) Concern for Wife’s Wellbeing, (2) Empathy and Pride for Wife, (3) Relief in the Successful Birth, (4) Emergence of Interconnectedness with His Newborn Baby, (5) Paternal Responsibility, and (6) Creation of His New Family Constellation. This study highlights a need to understand fathers’ birth experiences as an embodied existential lived experience. This study should be understood in the context of pregnancies of nuclear family heterosexual couples.

Implementing integrated care clinics for HIV-infection, diabetes and hypertension in Uganda (INTE-AFRICA): process evaluation of a cluster randomised controlled trial

BackgroundSub-Saharan Africa is experiencing a dual burden of chronic human immunodeficiency virus and non-communicable diseases. A pragmatic parallel arm cluster randomised trial (INTE-AFRICA) scaled up ‘one-stop’ integrated care clinics for HIV-infection, diabetes and hypertension at selected facilities in Uganda. These clinics operated integrated health education and concurrent management of HIV, hypertension and diabetes. A process evaluation (PE) aimed to explore the experiences, attitudes and practices of a wide variety of stakeholders during implementation and to develop an understanding of the impact of broader structural and contextual factors on the process of service integration.MethodsThe PE was conducted in one integrated care clinic, and consisted of 48 in-depth interviews with stakeholders (patients, healthcare providers, policy-makers, international organisation, and clinical researchers); three focus group discussions with community leaders and members (n = 15); and 8 h of clinic-based observation. An inductive analytical approach collected and analysed the data using the Empirical Phenomenological Psychological five-step method. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework was subsequently used to conceptualise integrated care across multiple contextual levels (macro, meso, micro).ResultsFour main themes emerged; Implementing the integrated care model within healthcare facilities enhances detection of NCDs and comprehensive co-morbid care; Challenges of NCD drug supply chains; HIV stigma reduction over time, and Health education talks as a mechanism for change. Positive aspects of integrated care centred on the avoidance of duplication of care processes; increased capacity for screening, diagnosis and treatment of previously undiagnosed comorbid conditions; and broadening of skills of health workers to manage multiple conditions. Patients were motivated to continue receiving integrated care, despite frequent NCD drug stock-outs; and development of peer initiatives to purchase NCD drugs. Initial concerns about potential disruption of HIV care were overcome, leading to staff motivation to continue delivering integrated care.ConclusionsImplementing integrated care has the potential to sustainably reduce duplication of services, improve retention in care and treatment adherence for co/multi-morbid patients, encourage knowledge-sharing between patients and providers, and reduce HIV stigma.Trial registration numberISRCTN43896688.

Second Wind: Understanding How Academics from the Philippines Adjust to Retirement

Second Wind: Understanding How Academics from the Philippines Adjust to Retirement

The Lived Experience of Resilience in the Setting of Chronic Illness and Low-Resource Communities of African Americans That Reside in Tallahatchie County, Mississippi.

Strong links can be made between chronic illness, low-resource communities, and poor health outcomes. One such area is the Mississippi Delta within the United States that has identified its residents rank the lowest in overall health indicators with high rates of chronic illness. This study aimed to explore the phenomenon of resilience in the setting of chronic illness and low resourced communities to gain baseline knowledge of the topic to improve protective resilience within the community. The descriptive phenomenological psychological reduction method outlined by Giorgi et al. was used based on semistructured and in-depth interviews with eight individuals (ages 33-64) who were recruited by purposive sampling through a humanitarian organization. Six themes of the lived experience of the participants revealed the eidetic structure and essence of the experience. The results of the study provided important implications related to the meaning of chronic illness to the individual, poor resilient risk factors, antecedents to resilience, and areas to focus on for resilience promotion. A lifeworld perspective of the individual can help nurses develop a greater understanding in formulating interventions for resilience promotion.

A Qualitative Study on What It Means for Patients with Schizophrenia Living in the Community to Remain on Medication

Background: Little is known about what the experience of “taking antipsychotics” means in a patient’s life. Therefore, this study aims to identify what it means for patients with schizophrenia living in the community to remain on medication. Methods: The participants were five residents of communities, who had been discharged from a psychiatric hospital, but were currently visiting a private psychiatric hospital. In this study, we used participants’ narratives as data and analyzed them according to the procedures described in “An Application of Phenomenological Method in Psychology” (Giorgi, 1975), and “Practice of analyzing materials describing experiences” (Giorgi, 2004). Results: The study results are as follows. 1) The drug may be effective, but Subject (below, S) still wants to take it as little as possible. Meanwhile, S has people who care about S and a person who S can rely on nearby, to manage S’s life. The people above tell S to take medicine, and S takes it. 2) S does not know what kind of medication S is consuming, but recently S has been having a hard time walking; S has people who care for S’s foot and look after S. S thinks taking medicine is for living. 3) S feel some drugs is ineffective. However, S met some people S could trust who passionately recommended the medication to S. S started being careful in remembering to take it. 4) S does not think drugs are necessary for S, but S can interact with people and spend S’s days. S has people who accept S as S is. S continues living in the community while taking medicine that a doctor offers. 5) S was skeptical about the drugs. However, S has a person S can trust, who recommended a way to take the medication in a way that S does not feel overwhelmed. S thinks that it may be a good idea to take it. Conclusions: Based on the analysis of the narratives of each of the five participants, the essential structure was read from the perspective of a third party regarding participants’ medication adherence. A generalized reading of the structure common to the above five essential structures reveals a structure that includes the following three opportunities: 1) Patients realize the importance of people; 2) They sometimes entrust themselves to people or follow people’s opinions when taking actions; 3) They have come to terms with their initial negative feelings about antipsychotic drugs, subsequently continuing to take antipsychotic drugs. This suggests that the following are important attitudes of supporters of patients with schizophrenia who continue to live in the community: To accept what is happening to the patients, to talk to them with encouragement and compassion, and to be there for them. It is also important for supporters to make patients feel comfortable in opening up while the patients reside in the community and to support patients in making decisions.

“As If There Are Two of Us”: The Battle of Borderline Personality Disorder Diagnosis in Lived Time

Background: Although the experience of reception of borderline personality disorder (BPD) diagnosis was previously researched, the process of mental adjustment to this diagnosis remains both empirically and theoretically unexplored. Theoretical concepts describing the structure of lived time in borderline patients, which underlies adjustment to diagnosis, living with the diagnosis, and recovery from the disorder, namely, immediacy and instantaneity are not empirically verified. Aim: This study aimed to phenomenologically describe the process of mental adjustment to the diagnosis of BPD and to uncover its underlying temporal structure. Methods: Semi-structured phenomenological interviews based on Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological psychological method and Cottle’s Circles Test. The participants were 10 white, adult women diagnosed with BPD aged 20–32 years. Results: The process of adjustment to BPD diagnosis comprises three following stages: (1) a cumulative feeling of inadequacy preceding the diagnosis, (2) the outburst of diagnosis, (3) a battle of Self fragments while adjusting to the diagnosis. Simultaneously, the diagnosis modifies the relationship between the self and illness in a way that previously scattered problematic issues become inscribed into the self as symptoms. At the same time, these symptoms are relatively separated from its “healthy” part. The temporal structure underlying this process is discontinuous. Particular temporal dimensions are distanced from one another, and the inner images of the past and present consist of unconnected, emotional peaks. The present resembles waking up from the lethargy of the past, while the future consists of two colliding scenarios – either being free of or in control of symptoms. Conclusion: Clinicians should pay more attention to the pathway of identification with BPD diagnosis and its underlying temporality. This is crucial for recovery and may allow adjusting therapeutic interventions to the patients’ needs. Treatment should aim to enhance the patients’ abilities to reflect upon their temporal experience to merge their fragmented narrative identity and better situate them in the recovery process.

A Phenomenological Exploration of Adoptive Parent Experiences of Support During the Adoption Process

Children who age out of foster care face adjustments and mental health issues at higher rates than their peers, but those who are adopted have the opportunity to heal from previous trauma and experience better outcomes. To create healthy family systems for adopted children, adoptive parents need support and guidance as they personally adjust and help their children adjust to a new family system. Previous research has emphasized child identifiers rather than parent influence in efforts to understand adoption success and failure. In this transcendental phenomenological study, adoptive parents provided their lived experiences of support during the adoption process. The results were analyzed using the descriptive phenomenological psychological method and the results were framed using an adapted version of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. The results offered experiences of support at all 4 levels of the ecological model and provided a framework to use for future research to understand the influences of the sources of support and a guideline for agencies and counselors to use when serving adoptive families. The results can aid in the proactive development of training and support services for adoptive families and provide information for professionals by offering insight into the nontraditional structure of adoptive families.

The Lived Experiences of Chinese International College Students and Scholars during the Initial COVID-19 Quarantine Period in the United States.

The purpose of this study was to explore Chinese international college students’ lived experiences during the initial COVID-19 quarantine period in the United States. Using a descriptive phenomenological psychological method, data were gathered from 14 international students and visiting scholars from China using individual and focus group interviews. Four transformed meaning units that formed the structural base of the phenomenal experience were identified as Safety Concerns, The Salience of the English Language, Intersectionality of Policies and Complex Decision Making, and Unexpected Support and Benefits. Implications for policy making and support for international students’ learning in the U.S. higher education institutions and future research recommendations are included.

The Meaning of Sedentary Behavior as Experienced by People in the Transition From Working Life to Retirement: An Empirical Phenomenological Study.

ObjectiveSedentary behavior (SB) is defined as a mean of >6 hours of daytime sitting or lying down. SB has been shown to increase with older age and is a risk factor for disease. During the transition from working life to retirement, changes in daily life activities occur, risking increased SB. The aim of the present study was to gain a deeper understanding of SB in relation to the transition from working life to retirement as experienced by persons in retirement.MethodsThe study was grounded in a phenomenological life-world perspective. Fourteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants aged 64 to 75 years. Data were analyzed using the empirical phenomenological psychological method.ResultsThe participants described that voluntary sedentary time was positively related to general health and well-being, whereas involuntary sedentary time was negatively related to health. Increased sedentary time was described as natural when aging. Retirement was expressed as a time for rest after hard work and the ability to choose a slower pace in life. Internal and external demands and daily routines interrupted SB, whereas loneliness was perceived to increase SB. Participants strived to find a balance between physical activity and sedentary time. The variations in the participants’ descriptions formed 3 typologies: in light of meaningful SB, in the shadow of involuntary SB, and a dual process—postponing SB with physical activity.ConclusionIncreased SB was perceived as natural when aging but something that may be postponed by conscious choices. SB was perceived as associated with health, rest, and recovery but also with the risk of deteriorating health.ImpactThis knowledge of the experienced meaning of SB could guide the design of health promotion interventions and may be helpful in targeting those in need of support and individualizing interventions to decrease SB in retirement.Lay SummaryThis study reveals how persons in retirement describe sedentary behavior as something healthy but also as unhealthy and that sedentary behavior is natural in aging and can be postponed by physical activity.

Investigating the Lived Experiences of Abused Mothers: A Phenomenological Study

Introduction: Domestic/family violence including child abuse, spousal abuse, elder abuse, and parental abuse is a common issue in the modern world. Adolescent-to-mother abuse is one of the phenomena that have been the focus of attention in recent decades due to its negative effects on the family system. The objective of the present study was to investigate the lived experiences of mothers abused by their adolescent children and to determine its final structure by surveying the research participants. Methods: This study employed a qualitative and phenomenological method. Nine participants were selected using the purposive sampling method and in-depth interviews were conducted until data saturation. The interviews were recorded and transcribed and then analyzed using a descriptive phenomenological psychological method. Results: Data analysis revealed 11 components of mothers abuse by their adolescent children including: 1) Physical injury, 2) Emotional abuse; 3) Financial pressure, 4) The sense of being emotionally harmed, 5) Perception of child’s behavior as an abusive interaction, 6) Spiritual harm, 7) Pathology, 8) Causality of abusive behavior; 9) Ambivalent perception of abusive behavior, 10) Cyclical nature of child-mother abusive interaction patterns, and 11) Intentionality of abusive behavior. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that the depth of harms to mothers abused by their adolescent children can be very extensive and severe. The insights from this study provide many contributions to counseling centers and family therapists.

'I want to be with you, but I have MS': Challenges of interpersonal relationships from the MS patients' point of view.

Interpersonal relationships play an important role in adjustment to disease, coping and improving life quality after onset of Multiple sclerosis (MS). However, considering its specific nature, MS has a considerable effect on interpersonal relationships. Thus, this study was conducted to identify and describe effects of disease on interpersonal relationships through investigating lived experiences of patients. In this research, a total of 24 MS patients were selected through purposive sampling from individuals referred to the MS Clinic of Kashani Hospital in Isfahan, Iran, during 2016-2017, and then in-depth interviews were done with participants. After analysing interviews by Giorgi Descriptive Phenomenological Psychological Method, five main themes were obtained including 'Who is guilty?', 'The need for informed care', 'living with a secret', 'Change in relationships' and 'The Reality slap'. Content of experience for some of these themes was more influenced by nature of the disease, whereas some other themes were influenced more by patient's cultural context.

Designer benzodiazepines' pharmacological effects and potencies: How to find the information.

Scientific data on the psychopharmacological effects of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) are scarce. Web fora contain a wealth of information posted by users as trip reports (TRs), but the reliability of the reports remains questionable because of the nature of the used molecule and the potential for dose inaccuracies. We focused on the TRs of designer benzodiazepine (DBZD) users since their psychopharmacological effects are similar to prescription benzodiazepines (BZDs). Moreover, the impact of functional groups on the BZD rings with regards to the potency has been fairly/quite studied, allowing structural analysis. DBZDs offering more than 15 TRs with at least two accounts on experienced effects were included. Data were analyzed with the empirical phenomenological psychological method. Reported effects were analyzed and the pharmacological potencies of DBZDs were compared by calculating a 'potency score'. In total, 197 TRs for clonazolam, deschloroetizolam, diclazepam, etizolam, flubromazepam, flubromazolam, meclonazepam, metizolam, nifoxipam and pyrazolam were analyzed. Effects similar to prescription BZDs were reported for all the selected DBZDs. Pyrazolam was reported to be the most anxiolytic DBZD, flubromazolam the most hypnotic, etizolam the most euphoric and flubromazolam and clonazolam as the most amnesic DBZDs. Diclazepam and pyrazolam were not reported to induce euphoria. Flubromazepam, flubromazolam, clonazolam and meclonazepam were the most potent and deschloroetizolam, nifoxipam, metizolam and pyrazolam the least potent. The chemical structure of the different DBZDs and the functional groups on the BZD rings confirmed this ranking, except for nifoxipam. When information on NPSs obtained from Internet fora are abundant, it could be considered as an appreciable data source.

Феноменология: ретроспективный и проспективный подходы (предварительный план исследования)

The article outlines ways to determine the theoretical preconditions for the formation of phenomenological philosophy and provides some examples of the practical application of the phenomenological method in current social and human studies. The specificity of the approach implemented in the article is that the authors deliberately refuse to consider the primary sources of phenomenology (Kant, Brentano, etc.) and turn to the primary sources of this doctrine in ancient philosophy. The authors assume that addressing ancient philosophy allows to reveal all capabilities of the phenomenological method. The application of the phenomenological method in psychology faces a number of difficulties. Firstly, there is a problem of distinguishing between philosophy and psychology. Secondly, there is a difficulty in combining scientific (dogmatic) and phenomenological (anti-dogmatic, critical) knowledge. The task of a phenomenological psychologist is to develop an understanding of the diversity of human experience, guided by unpackaged knowledge. Therefore, an appeal to the philosophical heritage of the past, and above all to ancient and medieval texts, is a justified decision, because the first prescientific attempts of thinkers to find ways to describe experience are found there.

Explorations in Teaching the Phenomenological Method: Challenging Psychology Students to «Grasp at Meaning» in Human Science Research

In order to fulfill our collective calling to understand and to heal human persons, psychologists need to be taught ways of listening, observing, and knowing others that respect and preserve the richness of human experience as it is lived. This article serves to introduce current and future researchers of the human condition to a perspective that values what is meaningful in human life. This paper is devoted to two goals: (a) to present pedagogical strategies for the teaching of phenomenological method to psychology students; and (b) to present an introduction to the methodology of phenomenological research. What are we actually doing when attempting to conduct this kind of «scientific» research? More importantly, how do we teach others to do what it has taken our whole career to learn? The history of the development of phenomenological method in psychology is traced from its roots at Duquesne in the early 1970s to its further implementation at the University of Dallas over the past 45 years. The «workshop» approach to teaching qualitative inquiry is explored, along with the phenomenological and hermeneutic principles underlying the analysis of verbal self-report data. Formulating a research question, distinguishing the research phenomenon from the situation interrogated, engaging in direct «intuitive contact» with the phenomenon, reflexivity with respect to one’s biases and presuppositions, the carrying-out of intentional analyses, and «deep listening» to the testimonies of others will be presented and illustrated with examples taken from research workshops over the past three decades.

Women's Psychological Aggression Toward an Intimate Male Partner: Between the Impulsive and the Instrumental.

The purpose of this article is to explore some underlying mechanisms of women's psychological aggression in intimate partner violence (IPV), as a phenomenon that requires better understanding and intervention, even in cases when it does not lead to physical violence. Psychological aggression is known to be the most prevalent pattern of IPV for both genders, and its impact on many survivors is known to be equal and sometimes worse than that of physical harm. Despite the fact that most aggressive conflicts between couples do not escalate into physical violence, research mainly addresses psychological aggression in the context of its correlation with it. This article is based on qualitative interviews with 30 women who were in bidirectional abusive heterosexual relationships, who were at least psychologically aggressive toward their male intimate partner, and who were willing to be interviewed about this experience. Results of the phenomenological psychological method of analysis of the interviews are presented, focusing on the women's personal accounts for using psychological aggression. These accounts are further analyzed from two perspectives: (a) the bimodal classification of impulsive, as opposed to instrumental, aggression; and (b) the client's perceived need-to-control the partner as opposed to the ability to exercise self-control. The article also discusses implications for theory and practice, especially in the refining of relevant intervention goals with psychologically aggressive women.

Discovering lived experiences through descriptive phenomenology

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the reasons why descriptive phenomenology (DP) can provide an improved understanding of hospitality, tourism and event experiences. This is achieved through two objectives: first, by revealing the complexities and philosophical depths of DP; second, by providing a practical, stepped method that offers rigour and transparency.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is based upon a study that explored the lived experience of the popular music festival-goer. It generally discusses the phenomenological philosophies of Husserl (1965 [1911]) and the descriptive phenomenological method in psychology of Giorgi (2009). It identifies not only some of the challenges and criticisms of DP but also the strengths of using a scientific approach to phenomenological research.FindingsThe philosophical strengths underlying DP afford a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being studied. The lived experience music festival study illustrates that the method of data collection and analysis highlights the intricacy of the philosophical debate and research findings. Although the bracketing, or epoché, method of DP has been criticised, the actual application is far more complex than trying to blank out prior knowledge. The aim is to ensure that it is the participants’ experiences that are used to identify the structure that is the phenomenon rather than the personal interpretation of the researcher.Originality/valueIt is recognised that researching the lifeworld affords a greater depth of understanding of experiences in people’s lives. One of the disappointments has been that one branch of phenomenological research, DP, has been underutilised and at times misunderstood in hospitality, tourism and event research. This paper aims to demonstrate and illustrate why and how DP should be considered in the future research of such experiences.

Explorations in teaching the phenomenological method: Challenging psychology students to “grasp at meaning” in human science research.

In order to fulfill our collective calling to understand and to heal human persons, psychologists need to be taught ways of listening, observing, and knowing others that respect and preserve the richness of human experience as it is lived. This article serves to introduce current and future researchers of the human condition to a perspective that values what is meaningful in human life. This paper is devoted to two goals: (a) to present pedagogical strategies for the teaching of phenomenological method to psychology students; and (b) to present an introduction to the methodology of phenomenological research. What are we actually doing when attempting to conduct this kind of «scientific» research? More importantly, how do we teach others to do what it has taken our whole career to learn? The history of the development of phenomenological method in psychology is traced from its roots at Duquesne in the early 1970s to its further implementation at the University of Dallas over the past 45 years. The «workshop» approach to teaching qualitative inquiry is explored, along with the phenomenological and hermeneutic principles underlying the analysis of verbal self-report data. Formulating a research question, distinguishing the research phenomenon from the situation interrogated, engaging in direct «intuitive contact» with the phenomenon, reflexivity with respect to one’s biases and presuppositions, the carrying-out of intentional analyses, and «deep listening» to the testimonies of others will be presented and illustrated with examples taken from research workshops over the past three decades.

"A body in transformation"-An empirical phenomenological study about fear-avoidance beliefs towards physical activity among persons experiencing moderate-to-severe rheumatic pain.

Aims and objectivesTo gain a better understanding of fear‐avoidance beliefs towards physical activity and body awareness in people experiencing moderate‐to‐severe rheumatic pain.BackgroundRheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis are long‐term conditions with pain as the prominent symptom. Health‐promoting physical activity is recommended and can have an analgesic effect. High self‐rated pain has previously been reported to be associated with increased fear‐avoidance behaviour in relation to physical activity. Body awareness, which includes attentional focus and awareness of internal body sensations, could be valuable in the nursing care of long‐term diseases.DesignEmpirical phenomenological.MethodsAn empirical phenomenological psychological method was applied. The interviews took place between autumn 2016–spring 2017 with 11 informants (eight women and three men, age range 44–71 years) who were diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis (n = 7) or psoriatic arthritis (n = 4), with a disease duration ranging from 3–35 years. The mean visual analogue scale score in the study sample was 60 mm.ResultsThree typologies were identified: “My relatively fragile physical status”, “I am an active creator” and “Part of something bigger than myself.”ConclusionsThe current findings indicated that pain anticipation and fear‐avoidance beliefs towards physical activity sometimes affected the behaviour of individuals with long‐term rheumatic pain syndromes. People experiencing moderate‐to‐severe rheumatic pain tended to focus on their fragile physical and emotional state. By adopting a more favourable attitude towards the self, the body could be restored to a state of calm and balance.Relevance to clinical practiceThe current findings are relevant for healthcare professionals engaged in health‐promotion clinical practice.

Phenomenological Analysis of the Lived Experiences of Academics who Participated in the Professional Development Programme at an Open Distance Learning (ODL) University in South Africa

Since online delivery of education has become a major approach to teaching in Open Distance Learning (ODL) institutions, it becomes critical to understand how academics learn to teach online. This study was designed to explore the lived experiences of academics who had participated in a professional development programme aimed at moving them from traditional distance teaching to online facilitation of learning. Giorgi’s phenomenological psychological method was used to analyse and retrospectively examine the learning experiences of the participant academics in order to establish how they lived, behaved and experienced the training programme. The participants described their experiences in relation to distinct lived worlds that included the world in relation to self, others, time, and their environment. The academics’ experiences and concerns provide insight into their skills development needs and the adequacy of the programme provided in addressing these and equipping academics for online teaching. The perspectives identified could serve to guide the development and promotion of professional development programmes for online teaching and learning.

Patients’ Experiences after Cognitive Behavior Group Therapy: From Anxiety to Feelings of Perceived Security

The vast majority of qualitative studies that examined the patient’s own experiences of cognitive psychotherapy are about experiences from individual therapy. Studies dedicated to investigating how patients experience group treatment are more unusual, although such treatment contains components lacking in individual therapy. The purpose of the current study was to investigate which components and interventions have been considered significant by patients who achieved diagnostic improvements after performing Cognitive Behavior Group Therapy (CBGT) for individuals with clinical anxiety. Participants consisted of seven patients (2 men and 5 women) aged 21 - 61 whom took part in CBGT for patients with anxiety problems. Respondents were recruited from seven treatment groups in southwestern Sweden. Prerequisites to selection were that prior to treatment, they were diagnosed as having clinical anxiety, and that after treatment, their diagnosis of clinical anxiety had been removed. For analysis of data, the Empirical Phenomenological Psychological (EPP) method (Karlsson, 1995) was used. Results showed that respondents described their anxiety as a lack of security, and that their treatment increased their feelings of security. Three themes emerged which were important for creating security: 1) Sharing with others, 2) Knowledge, and 3) Structure. Further analysis indicated that a security process was established where the perceived security of the group, “outside the individual”, could be moved to “inside the individual.”