Phataginus Tetradactyla Research Articles

Uncovering the magnitude of African pangolin poaching with extensive nanopore DNA genotyping of seized scales.

Trade in pangolins is illegal, and yet tons of their scales and products are seized at various ports. These large seizures are challenging to process and comprehensively genotype for upstream provenance tracing and species identification for prosecution. We implemented a scalable DNA barcoding pipeline in which rapid DNA extraction and MinION sequencing were used to genotype a substantial proportion of pangolin scales subsampled from 2 record shipments seized in Singapore in 2019 (37.5t). We used reference sequences to match the scales to phylogeographical regions of origin. In total, we identified 2346 cytochrome b (cytb) barcodes of white-bellied (Phataginus tricuspis) (from 1091 scales), black-bellied (Phataginus tetradactyla) (227 scales), and giant (Smutsia gigantea) (1028 scales) pangolins. Haplotype diversity was higher for P. tricuspis scales (121 haplotypes, 66 novel) than that for P. tetradactyla (22 haplotypes, 15 novel) and S. gigantea (25 haplotypes, 21 novel) scales. Of the novel haplotypes, 74.2% were likely from western and west-central Africa, suggesting potential resurgence of poaching and newly exploited populations in these regions. Our results illustrate the utility of extensively subsampling large seizures and outline an efficient molecular approach for rapid genetic screening that should be accessible to most forensic laboratories and enforcement agencies.

Black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla documented in Deng Deng National Park, Cameroon, using camera traps

AbstractInformation on pangolin life history and ecology is becoming increasingly available in African countries through community-based surveys and camera-trapping. However, there is a paucity of information on the largely arboreal black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla, which is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. By targeting fallen trees or logs with camera traps we recorded the black-bellied pangolin opportunistically in Deng Deng National Park (East Region, Cameroon), a locality within the presumed distribution of the species within Cameroon. We obtained a low trapping rate of 0.063 events per 100 trap-days and the capture probability was one event recorded over 1,571 trap-days (0.0006 captures per day). Deploying camera traps that focus on fallen trees or logs could be explored as a method for detecting black-bellied pangolins.

Status of terrestrial mammals in the Yangambi Landscape, Democratic Republic of the Congo

AbstractIn this study we provide the first comprehensive camera-trap assessment of terrestrial mammals in the Yangambi landscape, comprising the Yangambi Biosphere Reserve and a logging concession in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The terrestrial mammal community in this area exhibits lower occupancy and species richness compared to other conservation areas in the Congo Basin. The community is dominated by four species: Emin's pouched rat Cricetomys emini (1.3 kg), African brush-tailed porcupine Atherurus africanus (2.8 kg), blue duiker Philantomba monticola (5 kg) and bay duiker Cephalophus dorsalis (12 kg), which are known to be highly resilient. Large ungulates and medium-sized carnivores have particularly low abundances. Our study also confirmed the presence of four species categorized as threatened on the IUCN Red List: the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, giant ground pangolin Smutsia gigantea, black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla and white-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis. Our findings highlight the need to consider wildlife conservation at the landscape level, including the logging concession, where species showed higher occupancy levels compared to the Biosphere Reserve, and highlighting the need for planning infrastructure construction and developing mitigation schemes, reducing forest degradation from logging and developing permanent cash crop agriculture. Landscape-level conservation will only be possible if a collaborative management model steered by local communities is developed with the participation of all constituencies.

Pangolin hunting and trafficking in the forest–savannah transition area of Cameroon

AbstractPangolins have long been hunted for food and for their scales, but information on local hunting strategies in African range countries and the patterns of pangolin trafficking around sourcing areas is limited. Such knowledge is vital to inform monitoring approaches and conservation interventions. We administered questionnaires to 367 people from 20 villages around two national parks in Cameroon to gain insights into local hunting practices, and trading and trafficking patterns. We found that tracking was the preferred method of hunting pangolins. Trapping was also used, and setting traps on fallen logs and near burrows improved the likelihood of catching pangolins. The white-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis was the most traded species, and the giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea was the most sought after. We found no evidence of trade in the black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla. Most respondents stated that pangolin prices had increased over the last 5 years, and scarcity of pangolins was the primary reason given for this increase. We identified a pangolin scale trafficking network operating from rural communities to neighbouring cities. Although most respondents recognized that hunting pangolins is illegal, c. 30% indicated that they were engaged in pangolin hunting.

Investigation into spatial distribution of Pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla) In Mbe Mountain Corridor of Cross River National Park

Background: This study assessed the distribution of Pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla) in Mbe Mountain Corridor of Cross River National Park with a view to estimate its spatial distribution, population structure and vegetation distribution for a period of four months (September to December 2020). Method: The sites were visited from 7.00 am- 10.00 am in the morning and 4.00pm to 6.00 pm in the evening. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results: The spatial distribution of Pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla) revealed that Obue trail had the highest percentage of 56.3%, follows by Mbe trail with 31.2% and the least was sighted in Mbep trail with 12.5%. The highest number of observations was recorded in the month of December with 9 sighting, followed by October with 3 observations while the month of September and November recorded 2 observations each. The sex distribution of pangolin revealed that females were the higher in the observations with 11 sighting than the male with only 5 observations. The populations structure of pangolin (P. tetradactyla) shows that sub-adult was the highest in observation (7) while adult and juvenile recorded 5 and 4 observations respectively. 56.3% of the observations were sighted at Diospyros mistiliformis vegetation, Terminalia superba with 31.2% while 12.5% were observed at Brachystegia eurycoma vegetation. P. tetradactyla were seen running more than feeding with sleeping being the least activity observed. Conclusion: The study revealed the presence of P. tetradactyla (Pangolin) in all the three trails in the study area. This study has confirmed the presence of Pangolin in Mbe Mountain Corridor of Cross River National Park and their preferred vegetation.

Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Amending the Description of Intraproboscis sanghae Amin, Heckmann, Sist, Basso, 2021 (Acanthocephala: Gigantorhynchidae) from a New Host, Phataginus tricuspis Rafinesque in Central Africa

Intraproboscis sanghae Amin, Heckmann, Sist, Basso, 2021 (Acanthocephala: Gigantorhynchidae) was described from 4 females of 7 specimens obtained from a black-bellied pangolin, Phataginus tetradactyla Linn. (Manidae) in the Central African Republic. No males were available at the time. We, however, came upon two specimens of the same species, a male and a female, collected from a white-bellied pangolin, Phataginus tricuspis Rafinesque in central Africa which makes this finding a new host record for I. sanghae. The female specimen was whole and its measurements fell within the range of measurements of females in the original description. The male specimen, designated as the allotype, was incomplete; missing the posterior extremity, but provided good comparative measurements of structures of females. All measured male structures were smaller than those of the females. The generic diagnosis of Intraproboscis is emended to include the allotype male. Basically, the description of I. sanghae is now more complete, except for the absence of the posterior portion of the male specimen.

Is climate change threatening or beneficial to the habitat distribution of global pangolin species? Evidence from species distribution modeling

Global climate change caused by fossil energy consumption is strongly threatening the species diversity of mammals. In particular, changes in temperature and precipitation have affected the habitat of pangolins. Thus, we employed the MaxEnt modeling approach to simulate the potential habitat distribution of pangolins under the current climate and future climate change scenarios during 2081–2100. The habitats of the two Phataginus pangolins were mainly affected by temperature and precipitation. Conversely, geomorphological factors mainly affected the habitat of pangolins in the genus Smutsia. Under the SSP5–8.5 scenario, the habitat of Smutsia gigantea increased by 460.8 Mha, while that of Smutsia temminckii decreased by 89.4 Mha. Temperature and altitude affected the habitat of Manis crassicaudata, while vegetation coverage affected the habitat of Manis javanica. Moreover, human activities threatened the habitat of pangolins in Africa and India. However, labor transfer in southern China weakened the negative effects of human activities on the survival of pangolins in rural regions. Due to the lack of uniform intergovernmental schemes regarding global pangolin protection, the illegal pangolin trade threatens pangolin species worldwide, especially in Africa. From current to future scenarios, climate change increased the habitats of Manis crassicaudata, Manis javanica, Smutsia gigantea and Phataginus tetradactyla, while the habitats of Manis pentadactyla and Smutsia temminckii were threatened. Moreover, the total habitat area of the pantropical distribution zone in the Southern Hemisphere (26°S–33°S) decreased, mainly due to the extensive reduction in Smutsia temminckii habitat. The habitat of the pantropical zone in the Northern Hemisphere (19°N–28°N) basically remained unchanged. Increases in the habitat of the tropical distribution zone (11°S–17°N) were dominated by habitat gains for Smutsia gigantea. These findings provide scientific evidence to support global pangolin protection.

A Review of the Parasite Fauna of the Black-Bellied Pangolin, Phataginus tetradactyla LIN. (Manidae), From Central Africa with the Description of Intraproboscis sanghae n. gen., n. sp. (Acanthocephala: Gigantorhynchidae).

A new archiacanthocephalan in the family Gigantorhynchidae, Intraproboscis sanghae n. gen., n. sp. is described from females collected from the African black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla Linn. (Manidae) in the Central African Republic. A dichotomous key to the genera of Gigantorhynchidae is provided. The specimens presented are distinct from those of the genus Gigantorhynchus Hamann, 1892 that have only 1 or 2 circles of hooks (crowns) at the apical end of the proboscis and are found in South American mammals, except for Gigantorhynchus pesteri Tadros, 1966 from baboons in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Africa (Amin, 2013). They superficially resemble those of the other gigantorhynchid genus Mediorhynchus Van Cleave, 1916, especially in the organization of the truncate-cone proboscis and the position of the receptacle. Species of Mediorhynchus are bird parasites. The new genus, Intraproboscis, now the third genus in Gigantorhynchidae; however, is distinguished from Mediorhynchus by having a simple proboscis receptacle that is completely suspended within the proboscis, the passage of the retractor muscles through the receptacle into the body cavity posteriorly, absence of neck, and presence of a parareceptacle structure (first finding in the Archiacanthocephala) and a uterine vesicle; among other features, including the differential dorsoventral thickness of the body wall. The receptacle in Mediorhynchus is complex, with many accessory muscles and retractor muscles passing into the body cavity dorsally and ventrally. Our specimens reached 180 mm in length and the proboscis had 34-36 rows of 6-7 ventrally lamellated, rooted hooks each anteriorly, and 15-17 spinelike hooks each posteriorly. Micropores extended into the anterior and posterior proboscis and energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDXA) of anterior hooks showed high levels of calcium and phosphorus but negligible traces of sulfur. Spinelike hooks in the posterior proboscis had lower levels of Ca and P and slightly higher levels of S. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses based on the 18S rDNA gene placed I. sanghae in a clade with the archiacanthocephalans Mediorhynchus, Moniliformis, Macracanthorhynchus, Oncicola, and Oligacanthorhynchus.

Local Knowledge and Use of Pangolins by Culturally Diverse Communities in the Forest-Savannah Transition Area of Cameroon

Information about the presence and population status of pangolins, and the threats they face, remains limited in many parts of Cameroon, a country that is home to three species of pangolin and considered to be a global hub of pangolin trafficking. Local communities living in rural areas can provide valuable information on species presence, local uses of wildlife, and possible threats, that is useful for prioritising conservation actions. Using interview surveys in 20 villages surrounding Mbam and Djerem National Park, we investigated local peoples’ knowledge of pangolin presence, perceptions of population trends, cultural importance, consumptive and non-consumptive uses, and hunting of pangolins. Our results showed that most people recognised the white-bellied and giant pangolins, but only 10% recognised the black-bellied pangolin. Ethnolinguistic group significantly affected the likelihood of respondents recognising and having seen a pangolin before. Giant pangolin populations were perceived to be declining, particularly by older respondents. We found evidence of local use of pangolins for meat, but few respondents reported uses of scales. Cultural significance was reported by few respondents, but when it was reported it mostly referred to giant pangolin. White-bellied pangolins are reportedly hunted using bare hands for local consumption most frequently, whilst giant pangolins were mainly hunted for local consumption and income generation using wire snares. Overall, our study shows the possible value of local knowledge for planning and prioritising conservation actions for pangolins. We highlight the urgent need to monitor pangolin populations, and assess the possible impacts to pangolins from threats such as hunting.

Case report: Intestinal perforation and secondary peritonitis due to Acanthocephala infection in a black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla)

A case of Acanthocephala infection in a 5-year-old female rehabilitated and released black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla), which was part of a post-release monitoring program of a pangolin research operation in the Central African Republic, is described. This represents the first report of Acanthocephala infection in this species, which lead to intestinal perforation, secondary peritonitis and ultimately to the death of the animal concerned. It is of relevance to alert the pangolin conservation and research community to a so far unreported cause of death. A case history and necropsy findings, as well as preliminary parasite identification and genetic characterization which potentially revealed a new gigantorhynchid taxon are presented.

Understanding Local Ecological Knowledge, Ethnozoology, and Public Opinion to Improve Pangolin Conservation in the Center and East Regions of Cameroon

African pangolins are exceptionally difficult to monitor in the wild, which means that assessing threats and impacts to these species also remains a challenge. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) surveys have been recommended as an important tool to collect data for small elusive species. We carried out community-based interviews in 20 villages surrounding Mpem et Djim and Deng-Deng National Parks to gather information on local ecological and traditional medicine knowledge, perceived population status, and the level of conservation awareness amongst local people concerning giant pangolin ( Smutsia gigantea), white-bellied pangolin ( Phataginus tricuspis), and black-bellied pangolin ( Phataginus tetradactyla). The arboreal black-bellied pangolin was least known by local people, and along with the giant pangolin was the least recently observed species. The white-bellied pangolin was reported to be the most recently observed species by most people. Local people reported seeing giant pangolins most around forest and savannah burrows and white-bellied pangolins in forests, commonly crossing dead fallen trees. Limited traditional or cultural uses of pangolins were reported, and most respondents were aware of threats to pangolins. Respondents showed great interest in pangolin conservation, suggesting various strategies for conservation activities, such as trade controls and provisioning of alternative sources of food. We show that working with local communities can provide useful information for pangolin conservation and management efforts within protected areas.

Isolation and characterization of 30 STRs in Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) and potential for cross amplification in other African species

Temminck's ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is one of four species of pangolin, endemic to Africa. Two of the African pangolin species are listed as vulnerable and two are listed as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species due to their ongoing exploitation for traditional medicine and bushmeat. In this study, we developed 30 species-specific short-tandem repeats (STRs) in Temminck's ground pangolin using next-generation sequencing. The markers were also optimized for crossamplification in other African species. All the markers amplified successfully in Temminck's ground pangolin with allelic polymorphisms observed in 87% of the markers in giant pangolin (S. gigantea) whereas 60% of the markers were amplified polymorphic loci in both whitebellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) and black-bellied pangolin (P. tetradactyla). Analysis of diversity estimates showed moderate levels of variability in Temminck's ground pangolin (Na = 5; Ho = 0.559), giant pangolin (Na = 4.909; Ho = 0.514) and white-bellied pangolin (Na= 2.686; Ho = 0.541) with lower values being observed in black-bellied pangolin (Na = 3; Ho = 0.242). This study provides data of the first available STR markers which was amplified in all four African pangolin species that can now be used in conservation genetic and evolutionary aspects of population histories.

Pelacakkan Molekuler terhadap Hasil Sitaan Karkas Trenggiling pada Perdagangan Ilegal di Indonesia Berbasis Gen Barkode

Illegal trade in pangolins are generally in the form of carcasses, flour, scales, embryos, blood and bones. Therefore, physical tracking and identification are difficult so molecular analysis is needed to identify the specimen precisely. Investigations in the illegal trade of wildlife have benefited greatly from the advancement of DNA forensic techniques. Here, I reconstructed phylogenetic trees from the neighbor-joining analyses based on the CO1 gene sequences from the confiscated carcasses of pangolins. The genetic distance matrix calculations with the Kimura Two-parameter model (K2P) were implemented in the pairwise distance calculation in the Mega (Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis) program version 6.05. I included total 77 sequences of pangolins from confiscated and 92 sequences from GenBank (Manis javanica, Manis sp., Manis pentadactyla, Manis culionensis, Phataginus tricuspis, Phataginus tetradactyla, Smutsia temminckii, and Smutsia gigantea). The results of phylogenetic analysis revealed two clades of Asia and Africa with a genetic distance of 23.85±2.38% and all pangolin haplotypes confiscated identified as a species of Manis javanica. The genetic distance between Manis javanica and Manis culionensis was 3.9 ±0.89%, which it was a sister clade and the farthest genetic distance between Manis culionensis and Smutsia temmickii was 23.19±2.14%. The phylogenetic tree shows the monophyletic clade of pangolins species in the world. Phylogenetic relationships between haplotypes from Manis javanica were confiscated separately into two subclades, namely subclade A1 (19 haplotypes) and A2 (12 haplotypes). The genetic distance in subclade A1 averaged were 0.59±0.14% and subclade A2 were 1.01±0.24%, whereas it was 3.09 ± 0.64% between subclades A1 and A2. Total there were 31 haplotypes showing Manis javanica originating from a different habitat with a wide distribution.

Pelacakkan Molekuler terhadap Hasil Sitaan Karkas Trenggiling pada Perdagangan Ilegal di Indonesia Berbasis Gen Barkode

ABSTRACT Illegal trade in pangolins are generally in the form of carcasses, flour, scales, embryos, blood and bones. Therefore, physical tracking and identification are difficult so molecular analysis is needed to identify the specimen precisely. Investigations in the illegal trade of wildlife have benefited greatly from the advancement of DNA forensic techniques. Here, I reconstructed phylogenetic trees from the neighbor-joining analyses based on the CO1 gene sequences from the confiscated carcasses of pangolins. The genetic distance matrix calculations with the Kimura Two-parameter model (K2P) were implemented in the pairwise distance calculation in the Mega (Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis) program version 6.05. I included total 77 sequences of pangolins from confiscated and 92 sequences from GenBank (Manis javanica, Manis sp., Manis pentadactyla, Manis culionensis, Phataginus tricuspis, Phataginus tetradactyla, Smutsia temminckii, and Smutsia gigantea). The results of phylogenetic analysis revealed two clades of Asia and Africa with a genetic distance of 23.85±2.38% and all pangolin haplotypes confiscated identified as a species of Manis javanica. The genetic distance between Manis javanica and Manis culionensis was 3.9 ±0.89%, which it was a sister clade and the farthest genetic distance between Manis culionensis and Smutsia temmickii was 23.19±2.14%. The phylogenetic tree shows the monophyletic clade of pangolins species in the world. Phylogenetic relationships between haplotypes from Manis javanica were confiscated separately into two subclades, namely subclade A1 (19 haplotypes) and A2 (12 haplotypes). The genetic distance in subclade A1 averaged were 0.59±0.14% and subclade A2 were 1.01±0.24%, whereas it was 3.09 ± 0.64% between subclades A1 and A2. Total there were 31 haplotypes showing Manis javanica originating from a different habitat with a wide distribution. Keywords: Illegal trade, pangolin, gene barcode

The diversity and conservation of mammals in the Dodo Coastal Forest in southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, western Africa: a preliminary study

To improve the knowledge of non-volant mammal diversity and conservation prospects in the Dodo Coastal Forest (DCF) in southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, we conducted reconnaissance surveys and interviews, and deployed remote cameras. We calculated visual encounter rates (vER) and sign ER (sER) of mammalian taxa and hunting signs, mapped their locations and tested the hypothesis that sightings and signs of primates occurred closer to the river Dodo in and near the gallery forest. We sighted nine taxa, including threatened King Colobus (Endangered, EN), Olive Colobus (Vulnerable, VU), Lowe’s Monkey (VU), the Eastern Lesser Spot-nosed Monkey (VU), and White-bellied Pangolin (VU), with vER of 0.04, 0.12, 0.04, 0.12, 0.04, respectively. We confirmed 14 other taxa with signs including threatened Western Chimpanzee (CR), Pygmy Hippopotamus (Endangered, EN), Bosman’s Potto (VU), and Black-bellied Pangolin (VU), with sER of 0.51, 0.04, 0.08, 0.04, respectively. The most frequently encountered signs were of the Red River Hog at 1.73 signs/km, and the Bushbuck at 0.63 signs/km. Remote cameras captured images of these two taxa at image capture rates (ICR) of 0.044 and 0.022, respectively. Images of the African Buffalo were captured at ICR of 0.044. The 23 confirmed taxa include seven primates, four rodents, three carnivores, six even-toed ungulates, two pangolins and a Tree Hyrax. The mean distance from the river Dodo to the sightings and the signs of the primates was significantly shorter than that of other taxa. This supports our hypothesis. There was a high level of hunting signs (sER = 0.63) indicating that intensive hunting pressure is menacing the fauna. We recommend that authorities take actions against poaching, install a surveillance program, and curtail charcoal-making to ensure the conservation of the threatened mammals of the DCF.

Phylogenetic relationship and molecular dating of Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) with other extant pangolin species based on complete cytochrome b mitochondrial gene

Pangolins are a group of eight endangered mammalian species included in the family Manidae (Order Pholidota) and divided into four each African (Arboreal species; Phataginus tetradactyla, Phataginus tricuspis, Ground dwelling species; Smutsia gigantea and Smutsia temminckii) and Asian (Ground dwelling; Manis crassicaudata, Manis pentadactyla, Manis javanica and Manis culionensis) species. The taxonomy of all the eight extant pangolin species based on molecular genetics studies, remains unresolved and poorly examined. The present study is to address this lacuna by studying the phylogenetic, taxonomic status and molecular dating of Indian pangolin with other six out of eight extant pangolins (Sunda pangolin possibly extinct) based on complete coding region of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Overall sequences divergence among pangolins ranged between 0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.26 ± 0.03, where within ‘Manis’ it ranged between 0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.14 ± 0.03. Cytochrome b sequences based phylogenetic tree revealed, the division of seven pangolin species into two paraphyletic clades of African and Asian species, further these two paraphyletic clades were divided into three well-supported monophyletic clades, first for the genus ‘Smutsia’ with two African ground pangolins, second for the genus ‘Phataginus’ with two African arboreal pangolins and third for ‘Manis’ with three Asian species. Within clade of ‘Manis’, Chinese pangolin and Malayan pangolin are basal where Indian pangolin is present as a sister clade and furthermore, molecular dating analysis suggested that pangolins diverged from Carnivora at ∼87.2 MYA, followed by the split of Asian pangolins and African pangolins at ∼36.1 MYA and Indian pangolin split from Chinese pangolin and Malayan pangolin at ∼16.7 MYA.

Mitochondrial genomes of African pangolins and insights into evolutionary patterns and phylogeny of the family Manidae

BackgroundThis study used next generation sequencing to generate the mitogenomes of four African pangolin species; Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii), giant ground pangolin (S. gigantea), white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) and black-bellied pangolin (P. tetradactyla).ResultsThe results indicate that the mitogenomes of the African pangolins are 16,558 bp for S. temminckii, 16,540 bp for S. gigantea, 16,649 bp for P. tetradactyla and 16,565 bp for P. tricuspis. Phylogenetic comparisons of the African pangolins indicated two lineages with high posterior probabilities providing evidence to support the classification of two genera; Smutsia and Phataginus. The total GC content between African pangolins was observed to be similar between species (36.5% – 37.3%). The most frequent codon was found to be A or C at the 3rd codon position. Significant variations in GC-content and codon usage were observed for several regions between African and Asian pangolin species which may be attributed to mutation pressure and/or natural selection. Lastly, a total of two insertions of 80 bp and 28 bp in size respectively was observed in the control region of the black-bellied pangolin which were absent in the other African pangolin species.ConclusionsThe current study presents reference mitogenomes of all four African pangolin species and thus expands on the current set of reference genomes available for six of the eight extant pangolin species globally and represents the first phylogenetic analysis with six pangolin species using full mitochondrial genomes. Knowledge of full mitochondrial DNA genomes will assist in providing a better understanding on the evolution of pangolins which will be essential for conservation genetic studies.

Forensic application of DNA barcoding for identification of illegally traded African pangolin scales.

The escalating growth in illegal wildlife trade and anthropogenic habitat changes threaten the survival of pangolin species worldwide. All eight extant species have experienced drastic population size reductions globally with a high extinction risk in Asia. Consequently, forensic services have become critical for law enforcement, with a need for standardised and validated genetic methods for reliable identifications. The seizure of three tonnes of pangolin scales, believed to have originated from Africa, by Hong Kong Customs Authorities provided an opportunity for the application of DNA barcoding in identifying scales. Three mitochondrial DNA gene regions (COI, Cyt b, and D-loop) were amplified for a subsample of the confiscated material and compared with taxonomically verified references. All four African species were recovered as monophyletic with high interspecific uncorrected p-distance estimates (0.048-0.188) among genes. However, only three of four African species (Phataginus tricuspis, Phataginus tetradactyla, and Smutsia gigantea, originating from West and Central Africa) and one of four Asian species (Manis javanica from Southeast Asia) were identified among scales. Although the assignment of unknown scales to specific species was reliable, additional genetic tools and representative reference material are required to determine geographic origins of confiscated pangolin specimens.

Unravelling the Pangolin Bushmeat Commodity Chain and the Extent of Trade in Ghana

Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) are frequently hunted as a source of bushmeat in Ghana. However, no information exists with regards to the level of trade of pangolins outside of major bushmeat market surveys in Ghana. The aim of this study was to determine the level of trade among other stakeholders in the bushmeat commodity chain for pangolins in Ghana. Data were collected from 153 stakeholders using semi-structured interviews and direct observation between September 2013 and January 2014. A total of 341 pangolins were recorded to have been traded in this study period. The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) represented 82 % and the black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla) 18 % of the observed pangolins traded by the stakeholders. Chopbar operators accounted for the highest retailer sales to consumers. The number of pangolins traded was negatively correlated to the distance between settlements and protected forest regions. The levels of pangolin trade were previously underestimated in Ghana as the pangolin bushmeat commodity chain does not form the supply chain to the major bushmeat markets where most surveys were undertaken. The Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685) that prohibits the hunting of pangolins can be regarded as ineffective and not serving as a deterrent to poaching.