Phase Feeding System Research Articles

A new trend on sustainable animal production

A sustainable animal production can improve the efficiency of animal production and recycle of animal waste, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It can be achieved by firstly, properly operation of animal production, such as improvement by animal breeding, synthesis of amino acids, improvement by animal nutrition, good housing design, phase feeding system, liquid feeding system, using left over of one day bakery and biscuit factory, left over of vegetable and fruit market, new methods to plant Leucaena or mulberry to feed goats, grass or fodder plant in hydroponic house for sustainable farming. Secondly, good waste management, such as transferring waste to no contaminant material and even to useful material, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, liquid waste management, and solid waste treatment. All these subjects also need to consider the interaction between knowledge, e.g. breeding and nutrition need to consider about environmental temperature factors; waste management needs to consider about nutrient requirement by vegetable, fruit, etc. A sustainable animal production is a kind of science integrated different knowledge together, then you can achieve some good results.

The ideal protein profile for late-finishing pigs in precision feeding systems: Threonine

Optimal amino acid ratios for pigs have been established for conventional phase feeding systems, but these ratios may differ for precision feeding systems. Our objective was to assess the impact of different dietary Thr inclusion levels (70, 85, 100, 115, or 130% of the estimated ideal 0.65 Thr:Lys ratio) on growth performance, plasma biochemical parameters, and splanchnic and muscle AA composition in pigs raised in a conventional group phase feeding (GPF) system and in an individual precision feeding (IPF) system. A total of 110 finishing pigs (110 ± 7.02 kg initial body weight; 11 pigs per treatment) were housed in the same room for 21 d. Pigs were randomly assigned to a 2 × 5 factorial arrangement and fed using automatic feeders. Individual pigs were considered the experimental units. Five pigs per treatment were slaughtered at the end of the trial. The gain:feed ratio was not affected by feeding system, but there was a quadratic effect of Thr inclusion rate (P < 0.05). Lysine intake was 16% greater and Thr intake was 15% greater for the GPF pigs than for the IPF pigs (P < 0.05). Protein deposition (g/d) was not affected by any treatment. Protein deposition in daily gain was affected by the interaction between Thr inclusion rate and feeding system, with a quadratic (P < 0.05) effect for the GPF pigs and a cubic (P < 0.10) effect for the IPF pigs. The pigs in IPF consumed 14% less (P < 0.05) crude protein and excreted 17% less (P < 0.05) N than the GPF pigs did. The pigs in IPF retained 9% more (P < 0.05) N than the GPF pigs. Plasma urea values were 9% higher (P < 0.05) in GPF than those in IPF. The gamma-glutamyl transferase enzyme decreased (P < 0.05) in a quadratic manner within IPF but increased (P < 0.05) in a quadratic manner within GPF. In the IPF systems, the average concentration of albumin and C-reactive protein tended (P < 0.10) to be 2 and 22% lower, respectively, than in GPF. Changes in amino acid concentrations occurred mainly in the liver of the IPF pigs. The pigs in IPF had higher (P < 0.05) concentrations of collagen in the longissimus dorsi than the pigs in GPF. Lastly, IPF allowed standardized ileal digestible Lys and Thr intakes to decrease by 16 and 15%, respectively, without differences in average daily gain and gain:feed ratio in comparison with GPF.

Environmental impacts of diets containing different levels of crude protein and limiting amino acids fed to pigs in a phase feeding system

Environmental impacts of diets containing different levels of crude protein and limiting amino acids fed to pigs in a phase feeding system

Pigs receiving daily tailored diets using precision-feeding techniques have different threonine requirements than pigs fed in conventional phase-feeding systems

BackgroundThere is large variation in amino acids requirements among pigs, hence feeding pigs individually with daily tailored diets or in groups with a single feed may require different levels of nutrients. Thus, the response to different threonine levels (70%, 85%, 100%, 115%, and 130% of the ideal threonine:lysine protein ratio of 0.65) was studied in growing pigs raised in a conventional group phase-feeding (GPF) system or fed individually using individual precision-feeding (IPF) techniques. In a 21-day trial, 110 barrows (25 ± 0.80 kg body weight) were housed in the same room and fed using electronic feeders. Five pigs per treatment were slaughtered at the end of the trial.ResultsThreonine intake increased linearly for the IPF and GPF pigs (P < 0.05). Lysine intake was similar across the treatments. Average daily gain, gain:feed ratio, and protein deposition were affected linearly by threonine level (P < 0.05) in both feeding systems. Protein deposition in the GPF pigs was maximized at 150 g/d and a 0.65 threonine:lysine ratio, whereas protein deposition increased linearly in the IPF pigs. Plasma Met and serine levels were 11 and 7% higher, respectively, in the IPF pigs than in the GPF pigs (P < 0.05). Dietary threonine increased (P < 0.05) threonine concentration in the longissimus dorsi in a quadratic manner in the IPF pigs, whereas there was no effect in the GPF pigs. Longissimus dorsi collagen decreased as dietary threonine increased in the IPF and GPF pigs (P < 0.10). Carcass muscle crude protein was 2% higher in the GPF pigs than in the IPF pigs (P < 0.05).ConclusionsIndividual pigs are able to modulate growth and the composition of growth according to threonine intake. The average amino acid ratio value that is currently used for GPF cannot be used for IPF.

Response to dietary methionine supply of growing pigs fed daily tailored diets or fed according to a conventional phase feeding system

There is a large variation in nutrient requirements among pigs, and, therefore, feeding pigs individually with diets tailored daily or in groups with a single feed may require different nutrients inclusion rates. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the Met inclusion rate on growth performance, carcass quality, and nutrition health variables of growing pigs fed within an individual precision feeding (IPF) or a conventional phase feeding (CPF) system. Sixty barrows weighing 25–50 kg of body weight of the same high-performance genotype were used. A 2 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments with 2 main factors: (1) 2 feeding systems (IPF or CPF system), and (2) 3 Met inclusion rates (70, 100 or 130% of the ideal protein ratio of 0.30 Met:Lys) was used in a complete randomized design. Final body weight, average daily weight gain, feed efficiency, Met, and Cys intake, and loin depth were lower (P = 0.01) for IPF compared with CPF. Average daily gain increased linearly (P < 0.01) with increasing Met inclusion rates for IPF and it had no effect for CPF pigs. Average daily feed intake and backfat thickness were not different between feeding systems, yet both tended to increase linearly (P = 0.08) with the increase of Met inclusion rates. Lysine intake was lower (P < 0.01) in IPF compared with CPF pigs but Lys tended to increase quadratically (P = 0.06) with increasing Met inclusion rates for both systems. Plasma urea N was lower, and creatinine was higher in IPF pigs than in CPF pigs (P = 0.01), and both linearly increased (P = 0.01) with increasing Met inclusion rates. Alanine aminotransferase was higher (P = 0.02) in IPF than in CPF pigs, and remained unchanged with the increase of Met inclusion rate. Total plasma protein, triglycerides, and C-reactive protein did not differ between feeding systems neither among Met inclusion rates. These results indicate that Met to Lys ratio is underestimated for pigs fed with diets tailored daily, and the ideal protein profile might differ when pigs are fed in an IPF system or in a CPF system.

Quarter‐wavelength printed quadrifilar helical antenna design for UHF RFID handheld reader applications

AbstractThis article presents a compact size and light weight PQHA for handheld UHF RFID reader applications. Quarter‐wavelength inverted‐F resonators are employed as the basic radiation elements for the four arms of the QHA. The height of the designed reader antenna is only 27 mm so that it features compact size but still preserves satisfactory electrical performance. The antenna is fed by a four‐port quadrature phase feeding system fabricated by only lumped elements. The feeding system printed on a FR4 substrate measures only 60 × 60 × 1.6 mm3. The measured fractional bandwidth of the proposed PQHA system is about 21% and the 3‐dB axial ratio bandwidth ranging from 800 to 1000 MHz covers the whole UHF RFID band. The measured maximum gain is around 3.2 dBic in the North American band and the 3‐dB beamwidth is about 120° at 920 MHz. The measured reading distance along line of sight is approximately 7.2 m using a commercial 4W EIRP reader and a standard tag. The advantages of the antenna are easy implementation, light weight and low cost, making it suitable for handheld UHF RFID reader applications.

Carcass and body organ characteristics of broilers supplemented with dietary sodium and sodium salts under a phase feeding system.

The effect of sodium and sodium salts on carcass and body organ characteristics of broilers under a four phase feeding program were investigated. A basal diet (0.08% dNa with NaCl) was formulated and one of two sources of dNa (NaHCO3 and Na2SO4) were supplemented to obtain four different percentages of dNa (0.17, 0.26, 0.35, and 0.44%) for each treatment. There was a linear decrease in dressing percentage (DP) with source × level interaction (p ≤ 0.001), while there was a linear increase in breast yield and thigh yield with increasing dNa supplementation (p ≤ 0.001). Chicks fed 0.35% NaHCO3 and 0.44% dNa Na2SO4 supplemental salts had lower abdominal fat (p ≤ 0.04). Chicks that received increasing levels of dNa (from 0.17 to 0.44%) showed increasing gizzard weight (p ≤ 0.002) and decreasing spleen weight (p ≤ 0.02). When both salts were supplemented at 0.26% dNa, the chicks showed their lowest bursa weight (p ≤ 0.001). Consequently, chicks at higher dNa showed an increase in breast and thigh meat yield, and increasing capacity of their digestive organ. The higher levels of dNa should be tested with other cations and anions to fully understand acid base homoeostasis.

Growth Performance, Carcass Traits and Serum Mineral Chemistry as Affected by Dietary Sodium and Sodium Salts Fed to Broiler Chickens Reared under Phase Feeding System.

A basal diet (0.8 g/kg dNa) was formulated in which each of the two sources (NaHCO3 and Na2SO4) were supplemented in such a way to attain four levels (1.7, 2.6, 3.5, and 4.4 g/kg) of total dNa, respectively, under 4×2 factorial arrangement. Eight dietary treatments were replicated four times, with 40 birds in each replicate (n = 1,280). The diets supplemented with Na2SO4 to attain higher levels of dNa showed highest BW gain and feed intake (FI) during d 1 to 10 (interaction effects) while 2.6 g/kg dNa exhibited improved BW gain and gain:feed (FG) during d 11 to 20. Linear rise in daily water intake (DWI) was associated with diets containing increasing dNa during d 1 to 42 (p≤0.036). During the first 10 d, DWI:FI was found highest in NaHCO3 diets while Na2SO4 diets showed highest DWI:FI during last 10 d of the experiment (p≤0.036). Increasing dNa and changing Na2SO4 with NaHCO3 salt increased pH and resulted in poor growth performance. Dressing weight (p≤0.001) and abdominal fat (p≤0.001; quadratic effect) were reduced, whereas breast (p≤0.001) and thigh (p<0.001) weights were aggravated with increasing dNa (linear effects). Present findings suggested higher levels of dNa from Na2SO4 as the supplemental salt in broiler diets would produce better growth performance, especially in first ten days of life, and improve carcass and body organ characteristics.

Growth, water intake, litter moisture, carcass and physiological traits of broiler chickens fed varying levels and sources of potassium under phase feeding system

The concept of dietary electrolyte balance (DEB) was evaluated using 1-d-old straight-run Hubbard broiler chicks (total, 1472) and 4 dietary K (dK) levels (0.86%, 1.02%, 1.18%, and 1.34%) and 2 sources of dK salt (K2CO3 and K2SO4) in a 4×2 factorial arrangement of treatments. The 4 dK levels corresponded to DEB values of 200, 240, 280, and 320mEq/kg, respectively. Each of the 8 dietary treatments was randomly allocated to 4 replicates with 46 birds per replicate. The experimental diets were prepared separately for each phase, i.e., prestarter (d 1–10), starter (d 11–20), grower (d 21–33), and finisher (d 34–42). Analyzed water characteristics (pH, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids) and electrolytes were found within the recommended range. Feed intake (P=0.05), daily water intake (P=0.04), and mortality (P=0.02) were increased by replacing K2CO3 with K2SO4. The source and level interaction was found to affect litter moisture (P=0.04). Either varying levels or replacing salts of dK did not result in improved growth performance that was mainly associated with the simultaneously reduced capacity of the digestive (gizzard and proventriculus) and lymphoid (bursa and spleen) organs of the body. The dK and changing salt (K2CO3 with K2SO4) resulted in a greater dressing percentage (P=0.008), abdominal fat (P=0.03), and blood pH (P=0.01) but did not affect body, breast, and thigh weights. Increasing serum K, Na, and HCO3 were compensated with reduced serum Ca and Cl in higher dK diets. It is inferred that lower levels of dK (i.e., 0.86%) could be used to enhance broiler growth. The supplementation of K2SO4 improved feed and water intake, but reduced livability. The increasing supplementation of dietary K from K2SO4 improved carcass responses and reduced the digestive and lymphoid organ capacity.

Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics and Plasma Mineral Chemistry as Affected by Dietary Chloride and Chloride Salts Fed to Broiler Chickens Reared under Phase Feeding System.

Requirements of dietary chloride (dCl) and chloride salts were determined by using 4×2 factorial arrangement under four phase feeding program. Four levels (0.31, 0.45, 0.59 and 0.73%) and two sources (NH4Cl and CaCl2) of the dCl were allocated to 1,472 chicks in eight dietary treatments in which each treatment was replicated four times with 46 birds per replicate. The four phase feeding program was comprised of four dietary phases: Prestarter (d 1 to 10), Starter (d 11 to 20), Grower (d 21 to 33) and Finisher (d 34 to 42); and diets were separately prepared for each phase. The cations, anions, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and salinity were analyzed in drinking water and were not affected by dietary treatments. BW gain (BWG; p≤0.009) and feed:gain (FG; p≤0.03) were improved in CaCl2 supplemented diets during d 1 to 10. The maximum response of BWG and FG was observed at 0.38% and 0.42% dCl, respectively, for d 34 to 42. However, the level of dCl for BWG during d 21 to 33 (p≤0.04) and d 34 to 42 (p≤0.009) was optimized at 0.60% and 0.42%, respectively. The level of dCl for optimized feed intake (FI; p≤0.006), FG (p≤0.007) and litter moisture (LM; p≤0.001) was observed at 0.60%, 0.38% and 0.73%, respectively, for d 1 to 42. Water intake (DWI) was not affected by increasing dCl supplementation (p>0.05); however, the ratio between DWI and FI (DWI:FI) was found highest at 0.73% dCl during d 1 to 10 (p≤0.05) and d 21 to 33 (p≤0.009). Except for d 34 to 42 (p≤0.006), the increasing level of dCl did not result in a significant difference in mortality during any phase. Blood pH and glucose, and breast and thigh weights (percentage of dressed weight) were improved while dressing percentage (DP) and gastrointestinal health were exacerbated with NH4Cl as compared to CaCl2 supplemented diets (p≤0.001). Higher plasma Na+ and HCO3− and lower Cl− and Ca++ were observed in NH4Cl supplemented diets (p≤0.001). Increasing supplementation of dCl increased plasma Cl− (p≤0.04; quadratically) and linearly reduced plasma K+ (p≤0.001), Ca++ (p≤0.003), HCO3− (p≤0.001), and Na+ (p≤0.001; quadratically). Consequently, higher requirements of dietary chloride are suggested for feed intake; nevertheless, lower levels of dietary chloride are sufficient to support optimal BWG and FG with increasing age. The NH4Cl supplemented diets ameliorate breast and thigh meat yield along with overall energy balance (glucose).

Diets with High Amino Acid Density Can Improve Broiler Performance and Increase in Profit

This study was conducted at the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Rampur, Chitwan for evaluating performance and carcass characteristics of broilers fed with two grades of diets varying in nutrient densities; high amino acid density (HG) diet and medium amino acid density (MG) diet. Two hundred and eighty straight run unsexed Cobb 500 broiler chicks were randomly assigned to two treatment groups with seven pens per treatment such that each pen consisted of 20 chicks. Control birds received MG diet in three phase feeding system viz. pre-starter: 1-15 days, starter: 16-25 days, and grower: 26-38 days. Treatment birds received HG diet in two phase feeding system viz. starter: 1-15 days, and grower: 16-38 days. The birds were provided with diets in crumbled form. At 38 days, with HG diet, feed conversion ratio (FCR) decreased (p&lt;0.05) by 13.72%; body weight, carcass yield, and breast meat increased (p&lt;0.05) by 15.45%, 2.92% and 10.46% respectively. Total feed intake and incidence of mortality among two treatments remained unaffected. At day 38, HG diet produced net profit of NRs. 20.97 per bird. It is suggested that HG diets give better performance with respect to weight gain, FCR, carcass yield and net profit compared to MG diets. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 13, No. 1 (2012) 33-37 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/njst.v13i1.7396

Activity behaviour and social interactions of pigs raised outdoors and indoors

Abstract. Activity behaviour and social interactions of pigs in indoor and outdoor systems fed different levels of amino acids were studied on 96 crossbred pigs (Hampshire × Swedish Landrace × Swedish Yorkshire). The pigs were born outdoors and raised indoors in conventional pens or outdoors on pastures and given recommended (R), 7 % lower (R-7) or 14 % lower (R-14) levels of amino acids, in a phase feeding system with a low-energy diet provided ad libitum. Pigs in the outdoor system walked significantly more (p=0.012) and tended to be rooting more (p=0.098) than indoor pigs. Amino acid level did not affect the activity behaviour and social interactions of the pigs. Indoor pigs given diets R-7 and R-14 were drinking significantly more often than indoor pigs receiving the R diet, but had less contact with other pigs (p=0.020 and p=0.002, respectively). For outdoor pigs no such effect of amino acid level was found. Queuing for feed decreased with increasing age of the pigs, both indoors and outdoors (p=0.009). Rooting decreased and sleeping increased with the age of indoor pigs (p=0.014 and p=0.001, respectively), whereas no consistent trend for outdoor pigs was found. Sniffing, nibbling, pushing (p=0.001 for all) and tail manipulation (p=0.002) occurred more often indoors than outdoors. The results show that pigs in an outdoor system are more active and perform more natural behaviours, such as foraging and rooting, than pigs in an indoor system. Furthermore, roughages, such as pasture, and large areas may play an important role in occupying pigs and therefore contribute to less aggressive behaviours.

A comparison of choice and phase feeding for growing–finishing pigs

A growing-finishing trial using 72 crossbred gilts (19.7 kg initially) was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of choice feeding in the production of pigs. Six pens of three gilts were assigned to each of the following feeding systems: (1) conventional three-phase feeding (18–16–14% crude protein; P3), (2) one-phase feeding (16%; P1), (3) three-phase choice feeding (24–14, 22–12, 20–10%; C3) of two diets differing in protein level, and (4) one-phase choice feeding (24–10% throughout; CI). The three growth periods were 20–50, 50–70 and 70–105 kg live weight. All diets were based on barley and soybean meal and contained the same energy level (13.7 MJ DE kg−1). Choice feeding systems (C1 and C3) during the grower period (20–50 kg) increased (P &lt; 0.05) feed intake (1.52 vs. 1.33 kg d−1) and weight gain (801 vs. 731 g d−1) compared with those of phase feeding (P1 and P3). In the 50–105 kg growth phase, feeding systems had no effect on pig growth performance. Feed intake over the entire period (20–105 kg) was higher (P &lt; 0.05) with choice feeding (2.55 kg d−1) than with phase feeding (2.27). Dietary protein intake increased (P &lt; 0.05) by 18% in choice-fed pigs, and more dietary protein was required (P &lt; 0.05) for weight gain from choice feeding than from phase feeding. There were no significant differences in the protein content of the diets selected by C1 and C3 pigs for any period or for the overall experiment. There were no significant effects of feeding system on carcass traits, except that carcass dressing percentage was highest (P &lt; 0.05) for C3 pigs. These results suggest that choice-fed pigs consumed more dietary protein and required more protein for weight gain than pigs in a phase feeding system. Also, growing–finishing pigs do not have the ability to select a protein intake to meet their requirement for protein when they are provided a choice of diets differing in protein content. There was no advantage to using a three-phase choice feeding system rather than a singe-phase choice system. Key words: Choice feeding, protein selection, performance, carcass characteristics, pigs

A comparison of phase feeding and choice feeding as methods of meeting the amino acid requirements of growing pigs

ABSTRACTTwo experiments are reported in which a comparison was made of phase feeding and choice feeding as methods of meeting the changing amino acid requirements of growing pigs. In the first experiment, three feeding strategies were used: a system in which a single food (165 g protein per kg food) was offered throughout the growth period; a phase-feeding system, using five different treatments; and three choice-feeding treatments, in which the two diets offered differed only in their protein concentrations. The second experiment consisted of six treatments, three of which constituted a single feeding system, being a high, a medium, (the control) and a low protein food (240, 165 and 100 g protein per kg); there were two phase-feeding treatments, of three and five phases; and one treatment in which a choice was offered of the high and the low protein foods. In both experiments, group data were collected on Landrace × Large White pigs, sexes separate, during the growing period (30 to 90 kg). All pigs were weighed weekly, as was the amount of food consumed in each pen of 10 animals. Phase feeding improved food conversion efficiency (+4·4 g/kg) and caused a decline in both food intake (−45·3 g) and P2 backfat thickness (−0·4 mm) with each increment in the number of phases used. Results of the choice feeding treatments were not statistically significantly different from either the control or the phase feeding treatments. The intake of dietary protein was higher in the choice treatments than in the control (420 v. 370 g in experiment 1 and 345 v. 334 g in experiment 2). Where the two foods on offer differed only in protein content, pigs reduced the proportion of high protein food in the combination chosen by 0037 and 0·059 per week in the two experiments respectively, these linear trends being statistically highly significant. They were less successful in differentiating between the high protein food and maize, the proportion of high protein food chosen decreasing at a statistically significant rate of 0018 per week, but where the maize had not been supplemented with vitamins and minerals there was no significant trend in the way in which the pigs selected their diet, demonstrating the importance of the correct design of the two foods on offer in a choice-feeding programme.

Protein Requirements of Layers Per Day and Phase Feeding

IN order to make a phase feeding system practical, it is necessary to know the laying hen’s daily requirement of protein during the various parts of her production cycle. Heywang et al. (1955) noted that the optimum level of protein for layers was 15.0%. Miller et al. (1957), on the other hand, obtained good egg production on Leghorn pullets kept in laying batteries when the experimental diets contained 12.5 to 13% dietary protein, regardless of the levels of energy used which were 640, 745, and 930 Calories of productive energy per pound. Egg weights did not vary too much in each of the experimental diets. However, none of these diets were very high in energy content. Hochreich et al. (1957) found no differences in egg size when the percent protein in the ration was either 15.7, 17.0, or 18.3. Smith (1967) found no differences in egg production at protein levels…