Pharmaceutical Information System Research Articles

Information support of the pharmacist's communication in the process of pharmaceutical assistance of the population

Because of the systematization of the pharmacist's communication features in the process of drug assistance to the population, we proposed a schematic model of this process. The survey, which involved 320 pharmacists, revealed that 94.68% of them possess verbal communication skills and active engage in counseling patients during medication dispensing, including from the Rx list. Pharmacists have access to essential information sources about medicines and possess and possess the necessary knowledge and skills to identify and evaluate patients' health problems, particularly when it comes to selfmedication treatments and can be involved in monitoring these processes. The lack of operational information tools from the information systems in operation, (directly in the medication assistance process) regarding the aspects of medication use, taking into account the clinical manifestations of the disease and the total lack of the possibility to access objective information about the patient's characteristics, regarding his health needs, was highlighted. These tools can be developed within the existing information systems as well as by integrating the pharmaceutical information systems into the medical assistance system of the population in outpatient conditions, through the electronic prescription module under development and implementation. The study also identified various mitigating factors and professional duties that influence the pharmacist's communication process with patients, as well as some professional activities that the pharmacist performs as work duties: perfecting documents, records, management, monitoring drug stocks, patient flow etc.

Strategi Implementasi Logistik di Instalasi Farmasi Rumah Sakit

In hospital pharmacy installations, strategic logistics management has a very important role in terms of drug supply because of its routine and periodic nature. Researchers utilize various literature that is related and relevant to research as a source to obtain data. In obtaining sources for this research literature study, the authors conducted a search from selected databases such as Google Scholar that matched the research topic using the keywords logistics management, pharmaceutical installations, and strategy. At the input step, a condition evaluation is performed using value factors that apply as input to logistics management at pharmaceutical installations in hospitals, which may be analyzed with 5M. To eliminate or reduce unintended bias, inventory selection and assessment must be done properly and according to a strategy. Even after carrying out and applying standards to the input factor availability strategy and the processing process, logistics availability difficulties still arise often. This might happen owing to the effect of unknown variables. The process of implementing logistics management at pharmaceutical installations in several hospitals has been carried out well when viewed from the 5M management factor (man, money, material, machine, and method). SIMRS, or Hospital Management Information System, is utilized by hospitals as a pharmaceutical information system, which is highly significant and beneficial in creating reports connected to medication supplies; yet, there are hospitals where the information systems are not used efficiently. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) are used to manage pharmaceutical installations in hospitals, although there are still flaws in their implementation.
 

Pengembangan Sistem Manajemen Farmasi Di Pelayanan Kesehatan Rumah Sakit: Studi Teoritis

The hospital as a health service facility that carries out health efforts in an efficient and effective manner in healing and recovery efforts that are integrated with efforts to improve and prevent disease. In developing the hospital, it is also necessary to develop a management system service. One approach that can be taken to measure the success of an information system is to assess and develop pharmaceutical management. according to professional responsibilities. The purpose of this theoretical review is to find out how to develop a pharmaceutical management system in hospital health services. The method used is a theoretical review by analyzing and comparing existing theories. The results of this theoretical review are data processing, innovation, information and response from a management system. A pharmaceutical information system is an organized system for collecting, processing, reporting, and using information for decision making. Information is obtained from integrated collection of pharmaceutical documents or records and continuous development. It is also necessary to develop innovation and update a more modern pharmaceutical management system to simplify and streamline the healthcare system.

Медицинские информационные системы: современные реалии и перспективы.

Introduction. Medical information systems (MIS) are becoming increasingly important in modern healthcare. Materials and methods. The search, analysis and systematization of publications in the eLibrary and PubMed databases were carried out using keywords «MIS», «Medical Information System», «Pharmacological information System», «Health information system», «Hospital information system», «Pharmaceutical information system». The varieties of MIS, including pharmacological ones, are given. The advantages and disadvantages of the most used Russian MIS are analyzed. Their functionality is compared with those foreign analogues. Results and discussion. As a result of the analysis of publications, the historical aspects of the development of MIS in different countries are presented. Classification of MIS based on their technical design and functionality is proposed. A number of problems faced by developers and consumers of MIS are outlined. The characteristics of the MIS, the most commonly used at present in the Russian Federation, are given. A number of disadvantages characteristic of the implemented information systems and the ap- proach to their application, as well as the benefits for the medical organizations from their implementation are noted. Conclusions. The formation of the MIS market in Russia occurred about a decade behind the Western countries, but today this process is gaining speed thanks to government initiatives as well as the efforts of software developers and healthcare organizers. This process is hindered by the lack of qualified personnel in the field of information technology and insufficient technical literacy of doctors. The introduction of MIS at the initial stage may be costly, but the costs can quickly pay off by improving the organization of internal processes, increasing the efficiency and coherence of the work of health care units.

Cost-benefit analysis of the integrated pharmaceutical supply chain information service after the establishment of the Korean Pharmaceutical Information Service

Background: The Korean Pharmaceutical Information Service (KPIS) was established in October 2007 to increase the transparency of the pharmaceutical supply chain by integrating relevant information. This study aimed to describe the KPIS program and perform a cost-benefit analysis of the KPIS. Methods: We conducted a cost-benefit analysis based on cost savings in terms of National Health Insurance (NHI). The outcome measures were the net financial benefit and benefit-cost ratio over the 12years since the establishment of the KPIS. The cost estimate included the costs of labor and business operations, the development of an information entry system, and office maintenance. Financial benefits were defined as savings resulting from the implementation of the program based on KPIS data. Social benefits were defined as the prevention of recalled medicines from entering the supply chain and the decrease in inventory and disposal. Results: The KPIS clearly resulted in a net financial benefit, saving 37.2 million USD, which was 2.6 times higher than the cost of implementation. While the benefit-cost ratio was less than one during the first period, it exceeded 3.4 during the second period. After calculating and integrating social benefits, the net benefit increased to 571.6 million USD, and the benefit-cost ratio was 24.8. A sensitivity analysis of the annual benefit showed that the net benefit varied from a low of -1.5 million USD to a high of 24.7 million USD according to the program implementation year. Conclusion: The establishment of the KPIS and a system for collecting information on the pharmaceutical supply chain showed meaningful financial and social benefits when compared to the input cost. Since no other countries have an integrated pharmaceutical information system that incorporates all information from production to administration, the example of the KPIS can provide a precedent for other countries.

АРХИТЕКТУРА БРЕНДОВ ТЕРРИТОРИАЛЬНОЙ ФАРМАЦЕВТИЧЕСКОЙ ЭКОСИСТЕМЫ УРФО

Abstract. The article describes the results of a study of the brand architecture of manufacturers of medicines localized in the Ural Federal District and having common channels for the market distribution of medicines (LP) (territorial pharmaceutical ecosystem). To date, there is a priority of horizontal marketing technologies in the industrial pharmaceutical sector of the Russian Federation, at the same time, the assessment of the degree of development of brand identity elements of medicines produced in the Ural Federal District is of considerable interest. The purpose of the study was to develop and test a methodological approach to determining the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the brand architecture of manufacturers of medicines localized in the Ural Federal District, as well as to assess the potential for the introduction of horizontal marketing technologies in the positioning of Ural pharmaceutical brands. The object of the study was the aggregated assortment and realized wholesale demand for 476 trade names of medicinal products produced by Ural pharmaceutical plants. The study of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of brand architecture was carried out by the method of structural analysis of the assortment, marketing analysis of the offer using specialized pharmaceutical information systems. A moderate level of brand architecture development in depth is shown, corresponding to the predominance of unbranded LP assortment positions and the moderate introduction of "corporate umbrella" technologies. We have shown a direct relationship between the depth of implementation of brand architecture and the innovativeness of LP, as well as the market capacity of the market segment. Assessing the territorial development of brand engineering in the territorial pharmaceutical ecosystem of the Ural Federal District, it is worth noting the lack of geographical identification. The development of territorial and cooperative-territorial branding technologies for medicinal products produced in the Ural Federal District seems to be a promising tool for marketing differentiation of both products and manufacturers in the territorial pharmaceutical ecosystem of the Ural Federal District.

National standard treatment guidelines: their impact on medicine use indicators in a resource-limited setting

Abstract Objectives Standard treatment guidelines improve patient care outcomes. Few studies assess the impact of standard treatment guidelines on population-level medicine use indicators in resource limited settings in sub-Saharan Africa, where the burden of disease is greatest. The objective of this study was to determine the immediate and long-term impact of the national standard treatment guidelines on medicine use indicators at the population-level in Namibia. Methods An interrupted time-series modeling of the impact of national standard treatment guidelines implemented in Namibia in 2011, on population-level medicine use indicators. Antibiotic, generic and polypharmacy prescribing indicators were abstracted from the national Pharmaceutical Information System, over an eight-year period, 2007– 2015. This generated 15-quarterly time points. The impact was estimated by changes in trends of the indicators, immediately and after the intervention using R-software. The immediate impact was reflected by level change while long term impact was determined by trends/quarterly change after standard treatment guideline implementation. Key findings Data points from 522 Pharmaceutical Information System reports from 38 health facilities were included. The eight-year period estimates were, 2.9 ± 0.1 medicines prescribed per outpatient, 48.1 ± 2.5% of prescriptions had an antibiotic and 74.0 ± 4.2% of medicines were prescribed by generic name. Of the 13 regions, 61.3% and 53.8% had a decline in the average medicines per prescription and prescriptions with antibiotics respectively, as well as 53.8% of the regions had an increase in prescribing of generic medicines immediately after implementation of the standard treatment guidelines. Thereafter, quarterly trends in the three indicators did not significantly improve after the intervention at national and in all regions, except for generic prescribing in Oshikoto region, 4.5% (95% CI: 2.6 – 6.3%, P < 0.001). Conclusion Whilst national standard treatment guidelines immediately improved medicine use indicators, it is discouraging that the improvement over time was marginal across regions and was not sustained at the national level. Robust point of care interventions is needed for sustained and effective implementation of standard treatment guidelines.

Does pharmaceutical information systems data inform decision-making in public healthcare? Utility of a national system in a limited resource setting.

Globally, weak pharmaceutical information systems (PIS) negatively affect universal health coverage and outcomes. Few studies in sub-Saharan Africa qualitatively and quantitatively assess drivers and utility of data from PIS in public healthcare. A nationwide cross-sectional descriptive study interviewed PIS focal persons in all 14 regions of Namibia. The primary outcome was extent and predictors of utility of PIS data. The extent of utility of PIS data was determined using descriptive statistics and predictors by logistic regression in SPSSv24 or thematic analysis for qualitative data. The study recruited 58 key informants at facility-based 56 (96.6%) and national 2 (3.4%) levels. Of the 56 facility-based respondents, 29 (51.8%) were female and 27 (48.2%) pharmacists. The mean age and PIS work experience were 33.5±7.6years and 4.5±3.3years respectively. The utility level of PIS data was 34 (60.7%) (target >80%). A total of 103 uses of PIS data were cited; of which 38 (36.9%) were informing decisions on rational medicine use, 27 (26.2%) on pharmaceutical stock management and 24 (23.3%) on strengthening pharmacy workforce. The utility of PIS data significantly decreased with lack of systems on routine reporting by health facility in-charge (cOR=0.25, 95%CI: 0.06,0.90, p=0.035). Longer work experience (cOR=1.05, 95%CI: 0.88,1.25, p=0.58), formal consultations (cOR=1.29, 95%CI: 0.14,11.54, p=0.82), and availability of feedback systems (cOR=1.08, 95%CI: 0.33,3.56, p=0.89) appeared to increase utility of PIS data. Two thematic drivers of utility of PIS data were programmatic "feedback and action on PIS; structures,technical supportfor PIS discussion"; technical "training/technical capacity of staff; tools and resources for data collection and utilization"; and human-resource "staff availability and workload; attitude and commitment". The nationwide study shows sub-optimal utility of PIS data in public healthcare in Namibia, which negatively affects delivery of pharmaceutical services. This calls for action to enhance capabilities for utilization of automated real-time pharmaceutical information decision support systems to enhance real-time analysis and feedback on medicines data in resource-limited settings.

A model to strengthen utility of quality pharmaceutical health systems data in resource-limited settings.

Background:Limited utility of quality health data undermines efforts to strengthen healthcare delivery, particularly in resource-limited settings. Few studies model the effective utility of quality pharmaceutical information system (PIS) data in sub-Saharan Africa, typified with weak health systems.Aim:To develop a model and guidelines for strengthening utility of quality PIS data in public healthcare in Namibia, a resource-limited setting.Methods:A qualitative model based on Dickoff et al. practice-oriented theory, Chinn and Jacobs’ systematic approach to theory, and applied consensus techniques. Data from nationwide studies on quality and utility of PIS data in public healthcare conducted between 2018 and March 2020 informed the development of the model concepts. Pharmaceutical and public health systems experts validated the final model.Results:Overall, four preliminary national studies that recruited 58 PIS focal persons at 38 public health facilities and national level informed the development of four model concepts. The model describes concepts on access, management, dissemination, and utility of quality PIS data. Activities to implement the model in practice include grass-root integration of real-time automated pharmaceutical intelligence systems to collect, consolidate, monitor, and report PIS data. Strengthening coordination, human resources, and technical capacity through support supervisory systems at grass-root facilities are key activities. PIS focal persons at health facility and national level are agents to implement these activities among recipients, that is, healthcare professionals at points of care. Guidelines for implementation of the model at point of care are included. Experts described the model as clear, simple, comprehensive, and integration of pharmaceutical intelligence systems at point of care as novel and of importance to enhance utility of quality PIS data in resource-limited settings.Conclusion:While utility of quality PIS data is limited in Namibia, advantages of the model are encouraging, toward building resilient pharmaceutical intelligence systems at grass roots in resource-limited countries, where there are not only weak health systems, but high burden of misuse of medicines.

Utilization and Perception of Information and Communication Technologies Among Pharmacists and Development of Pharmacy Informatics in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Background:Information and communication technologies (ICT) are widely used in a health care as a result of pharmaceutical informatics and technology developments. There is a huge potential for pharmaceutical practice of technologies utilization in a different practice settings especial community pharmacy and patient counseling.Objective:To evaluate Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) pharmacists` knowledge and attitudes towards informational and communication technologies and extend of its utilization.Methods:Online survey conducted among pharmacists from different practice settings.Results:Pharmacists in BH are familiar and well known regarding importance of informational technologies. 93% are using special pharmaceutical information systems, and majority use technologies and software for prescription processing (47%), calculations (24%) communication (22%) and 9% for Internet search. 90% of pharmacists have profiles on social media mainly Facebook, followed by Instagram and LinekdIn mainly used for networking and communication with peers but less with patients. They have positive attitude regarding potential benefits of using social media for communication with patients and treatment outcomes improvement.Conclusion:Pharmacists in Bosnia and Herzegovina have satisfactory level of information and communication technologies understanding and knowledge. It is of high importance that education of future pharmacist in this field is in line with nature of pharmaceutical informatics in light of its clinical application rather than technical so future pharmacists can contribute to improvements in social media medicines-related information, learn from consumers’ online activities, and design new ways of delivering care to communities and individuals.

Optimizing data quality of pharmaceutical information systems in public health care in resource limited settings.

Robust pharmaceutical management information systems (PMIS) strengthen healthcare planning and delivery. Few nationwide studies in resource limited settings in Africa validate the data quality of PMIS in public healthcare. To determine predictors and quality of data in a nationwide PMIS database in Namibia. A population-level analysis of the quality of data i.e. completeness, accuracy and consistency in a nationwide PMIS database, 2007-2015. Data quality of the PMIS was determined by three domains, completeness, accuracy and consistency. Data completeness was determined by level of missing data in SPSSv25, with acceptable level set at <5%. Data accuracy was determined by proportion of PMIS indicators with extreme outliers. Data consistence was determined by patterns of missingness, i.e. random or systematic. Predictors of data quality were determined using logistic regression modelling. A total of 544 entries and 12 indicators were registered in the PMIS at 38 public health facilities. All the PMIS indicators had missing data and 50% (n = 6) had inaccurate data i.e. extreme values. The data for most PMIS indicators (75%, n = 12) were consistent with the pattern of missing completely at random (MCAR, i.e. missingness <5%). Incompleteness of PMIS data was highest for average number of prescriptions 6%, annual expenditure per capita for pharmaceuticals 5% and population per pharmacist's assistant 5%. The main predictors of poor quality of PMIS data were year of reporting of PMIS data (p = 0.035), level of health facility (p < 0.001), vital reference materials available at the pharmacy (p = 0.002), and pharmacists' posts filled (p = 0.013). The data quality of PMIS in public health care in Namibia is sub-optimal and widely varies by reporting period, level of health facility and region. The integration of data quality assurance systems is required to strengthen quality of PMIS data to optimize quality of PMIS data in public health care.

Implementing an Integrated Pharmaceutical Management Information System for Antiretrovirals and Other Medicines: Lessons From Namibia.

The success of the Namibian government's "treatment for all" approach to control and stop the country's HIV epidemic is dependent on an uninterrupted supply of antiretrovirals (ARVs) for people living with HIV. The public health system in Namibia, however, was constrained by an inefficient paper-based pharmaceutical information system resulting in unreliable and inaccessible data, contributing to persistent stock-outs of ARVs and other essential pharmaceuticals. This article describes the incremental implementation of an integrated pharmaceutical management information system to provide timely and reliable commodity and patient data for decision making in Namibia's national antiretroviral therapy (ART) program and the Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS). The system has 4 interlinked information tools: (1) the Electronic Dispensing Tool (EDT) that manages the dispensing and inventory of antiretrovirals at service delivery points; (2) the EDT national database, which facilitates the flow, storage, and collation of ART data at the central level; (3) the Facility Electronic Stock Card used to manage pharmaceutical stocks and report inventory movement data to the national level; and (4) the Pharmaceutical Management Information Dashboard that integrates all 3 tools plus the warehouse management tool used by the central and regional medical stores into 1 dashboard that serves as a platform for the analysis and dissemination of pharmaceutical information throughout the health system. Implementing the pharmaceutical management information system was a prolonged and complicated process, with key challenges related to user acceptance and human resource constraints. The integrated pharmaceutical management information system enables Namibia to collect more than 90% of transactional commodity and patient dispensing data from more than 85% of all ART sites. Health managers use information from the system for medicine quantification decisions and to improve pharmaceutical service delivery. The MoHSS and its partners in the national ART program use the information for monitoring the World Health Organization early warning indicators for HIV drug resistance; ART defaulter tracing; and for planning, reporting, and research purposes. Namibia's pharmaceutical management information system demonstrates the feasibility and benefits of integrating related tools while maintaining their specialized functionality to address country-specific information and inventory management needs.

Pharmaceutical Error Detection as a Mediator of the Relationship between Pharmaceutical Information Systems and Pharmaceutical Errors Prevention : A Case Study in Bagdad, Iraq

Pharmaceutical Error Detection as a Mediator of the Relationship between Pharmaceutical Information Systems and Pharmaceutical Errors Prevention : A Case Study in Bagdad, Iraq

The Association Between Residential Care Facility Manager's Educational Attainment and the Presence of Structural and Service Innovations.

For many service-oriented firms, knowledge is a key commodity, and the process by which knowledge is codified is critical for firm survival. The administrator or top manager acts as the repository and disseminator of organizational knowledge. The purpose of this project is to examine the association between the administrator's educational attainment and innovation in residential care facilities. The study hypothesized that administrator academic education and certification or licensure would be positively associated with facility innovation. Data for this project comes from the 2010 National Survey of Residential Care Facilities. There were 2277 facilities included in the sample (weighted 30 811). Innovation, the dependent variable, was operationalized using 5 dichotomized measures: clinical information systems, pharmaceutical information systems, electronic health records, providing adult day care, and providing respite care. The data were analyzed using logistic regression. Overall, the results reveal that college education or certification/licensure increased the likelihood of technology use. In addition, those with a high school diploma and certification/licensure were more likely to use technology than were individuals who had, at a minimum, some college. The services models were not significant. It may be that the resources necessary to implement information systems vary substantially from the resources necessary to provide services.

Pharmaceutical information systems and possible implementations of informed consent -- developing an heuristic.

BackgroundDenmark has implemented a comprehensive, nationwide pharmaceutical information system, and this system has been evaluated by the Danish Council of Ethics. The system can be seen as an exemplar of a comprehensive health information system for clinical use.AnalysisThe paper analyses 1) how informed consent can be implemented in the system and how different implementations create different impacts on autonomy and control of information, and 2) arguments directed towards justifying not seeking informed consent in this context.Results and ConclusionBased on the analysis a heuristic is provided which enables a ranking and estimation of the impact on autonomy and control of information of different options for consent to entry of data into the system and use of data from the system.The danger of routinisation of consent is identified.The Danish pharmaceutical information system raises issues in relation to autonomy and control of information, issues that will also occur in relation to other similar comprehensive health information systems. Some of these issues are well understood and their impact can be judged using the heuristic which is provided. More research is, however needed in relation to routinisation of consent.

Measuring and performance-managing aseptic dispensing in the National Health Service

Objectives This paper provides an overview of a research programme, undertaken by the author over a number of years, to determine how aseptic dispensing production and usage in the National Health Service should be quantified, and performance measured. The purpose was to enable hospitals to maximise the usage of aseptic products and optimise the performance of aseptic dispensing units, in order to reduce medication errors and consequently improve hospital performance, patient safety and patient outcomes. Methods Mixed methodologies were adopted throughout on an exploratory basis, and included regular expert input, workshops, structured interviews, activity data surveys and Delphi methods. The research primarily focused on the North West of England. Key findings The research established the data required, and systematised its collection and collation, addressing related nomenclature issues. Novel ways of analysing and manipulating the data supported decision-making. Long-term capacity planning is supported, with benchmarking essential given variations in the physical design, staffing and organizational position of aseptic units. The impact of major capital investment was evaluated, as were variations in practices between different regions. New electronic prescribing systems will not provide the required data. Existing pharmaceutical information systems will remain the main sources for the foreseeable future. Conclusions The research addressed the absence of set data for this important hospital support service. It enabled a systematic approach to capacity planning and performance evaluation, which is essential to support hospitals seeking cost efficiencies at the same time as improving clinical governance. A nationwide web-based database would present a cost-effective approach.

Analysis of different techniques to define metadata structure in NFC/RFID cards to reduce access latency, optimize capacity, and guarantee integrity

RFID/NFC cards/tags are widely used in a very diverse range of applications; these applications have usually a low data requirements, e.g. they are based on either just an ID for the data information or in a reduced and static set of fields. Therefore, the data structure can be easily defined and stored, without optimization needs, in the cards/tags. The problem with data structure appears when the application requirements define large, dynamic and miscellaneous information to be stored, such as an Electronic Health Record for e-Health application and a Truckload Record for Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). Therefore, that information needs to be carefully stored to reach the register that we are looking for very quickly and to optimize the card/tag space, which is very constrained. Consequently, this paper proposes a set of design issues and techniques to define the metadata structure in NFC/RFID tags and cards to reduce search time, read time and optimize capacity. For this paper has been defined an example of the metadata structure from a Pharmaceutical Information System, where the patient card based on MiFare stores drugs history, patient allergies and general patient information. The reduction of space reached for this solution following the design issues and techniques in this paper has been about 189%, a reduction of time to find a register reaching a direct access to the records, instead of sequential search, and consequently a reduction for read time.

外来がん化学療法部門システムの追加導入と混合調製業務に寄与する因子の多変量解析

外来がん化学療法部門システムの追加導入と混合調製業務に寄与する因子の多変量解析

Development and evaluation of an integrated pharmaceutical education system

There is increasing evidence that patient safety can be improved by the introduction of an integrated computer-based medical care system in hospital settings. In this paper, we describe an integrated pharmaceutical information system (IPIS) in which a patient’s profile including his/her medication records and prescriptions are collected from physician order entry systems and pharmaceutical systems along with the history of patient care in the hospital. Based on an individual patient’s profile the IPIS can provide pharmaceutical education information specifically to meet the patient’s needs. The IPIS has been developed and installed at Taipei Medical University Wanfang Hospital (TMUWFH) since July 2002. Evaluation of the system showed that it can help patients to effectively acquire drug information. This enables them to have a much better understanding of the pharmacological properties of the medicines they are taking, including adverse drug reactions and side-effects. In our opinion the system has the potential to improve both patient safety and treatment outcomes.

Comparison and Analysis of the National Drug Code Systems Among Drug Information Databases

National Drug Codes (NDC) is a drug identification code that is widely used to identify each unique commercially available drug product in the computerized health care industry. Various NDC database systems are currently used for the drug claims process, inventory control, and drug utilization review in the industry. Using a relational database, comparison and analysis were performed among eight major NDC database sources from the Food and Drug Administration, the Health Care Financing Administration, Medicaid, Redbook®, Medi-Span®, First DataBank®, Bergen Brunswig-Durr Fillauer®, and the Department of Veteran Affairs pharmaceutical information systems. A large discrepancy of comparability among those major NDC database sources was found with the percentage of matched rates ranging from 29.8-99.3%. The study suggests that a public central repository of a completed NDC database system is needed as a standard NDC reference for the health care industry in order to improve the comparability, accessibility, and quality of drug information.