Petroleum Regulations Research Articles

Risk in transit: a case study of the introduction of a new risk definition for risk management in the Norwegian petroleum industry

In 2015, a new risk definition was presented by the Norwegian Petroleum Safety Authority (PSA-N) as a petroleum regulation update and ‘rolled out’ in the PSA-N organisation and the oil and gas industry as a regulatory guideline, changing the definition of risk from ‘the combination of probabilities and consequences’ to ‘the consequences of an activity, with associated uncertainties’. This article reports on research that explores the industrial effects of this change. We have conducted qualitative interviews with both operator employees and consultants, and we have undertaken a qualitative cross-sectional analysis, where we explored how the implementation of the new risk definition is experienced by different actors in the industry. The analysis draws on translation perspectives from institutional theory and focuses on the developments of theory and practice influenced by the interaction between the industry and consultancies, academia and the regulator. We find that the new risk definition has had some practical influence on risk management, particularly exemplified through a generally raised awareness about uncertainty, in addition to some direct effects on risk analysis tools. The study also demonstrates pros et cons with a functional regulatory regime. On one hand it gives the companies significant leeway for them to tailor their treatment and evaluation of uncertainty to the context. On the other hand, with different understandings of uncertainty among the companies, it is more challenging for the regulator to perform audits in a structured manner. Furthermore, the study sheds light on different power aspects that are at play, influencing the interplay between standardised definitions, legislative instruments, practice, experience, and expertise.

Making sense of a new risk concept in the Norwegian petroleum regulations

In the 2015 petroleum regulations update, the Norwegian Petroleum Safety Authority (PSA-N) modified the risk definition, by highlighting uncertainty instead of probability as one of the core components of risk. Although much work has been conducted on how to assess and manage risk using an uncertainty-based risk perspective, the specific implications of such a risk perspective for a regulatory context have not been given equally attention. The paper seeks to bring new insights to this issue, by examining the extent of change in the PSA-N regulatory practices and strategies as a result of the new risk perspective, as well as identifying factors influencing the implementation processes within the organization. A sensemaking framework provides the foundation for the discussion.

EXERCISE WESTWIND – A COLLABORATIVE OIL SPILL RESPONSE BY OIL & GAS OPERATORS AND AGENCIES.

Abstract On June 9th, 2015, ACME Oil Company’s rig suffered a dynamic positioned ‘run-off’. The mobile drilling unit lost its station above the wellhead and a loss of well control was experienced. “A massive environmental emergency unfolded…affecting pristine coastline and masses of wildlife”. Incident Management and Field Response Teams were activated in a multi-agency operation, bringing together 200 personnel from 16 oil and gas companies and 18 government agencies and third party providers. Source control, aerial, offshore, nearshore, shoreline and oiled wildlife response capabilities were deployed and national/international support was utilised. Jointly managed by the Australian Marine Oil Spill Centre (AMOSC), the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA), the Federal Department of Industry and Science, and the Western Australian Department of Transport -Exercise Westwind was a successful multi-faceted marine spill response, demonstrating Australia’s collective Industry/Government capacity to respond to a large, offshore loss of well control incident in a remote and isolated location. ACME Oil Company was a fictitious company formed to enable the amalgamation of Australian petroleum companies to exercise industry arrangements under one ‘banner’ during the exercise period. ACME Oil Company had its own set of credentials, company website and Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. The company also held real time memberships with a number of service providers including AMOSC, Oil Spill Response Ltd, Trendsetter Engineering International, Oceaneering Australia and addenergy. Representing an innovative approach to spill response exercising, ACME Oil Company was a valuable and critical aspect to industry and governments participation under a non-attributable banner. Additionally, it enabled safe, widespread lessons to be observed, allowed for real-time testing of arrangements and provided a safe environment for regulators, stakeholder and industry interplay. The exercise was an efficient and practical solution for Industry titleholders and their third party supporting organisations, to test shared response resources and to ensure Industry arrangements for responding to oil pollution are in accordance with the Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Environment) Regulations 2009. This paper will discuss the development program behind the exercise and the experience of managing an exercise of this nature. It will highlight the successes including the creation and implementation of a fictitious company and the extensive collaboration between the industry and government personnel involved. It will also look forward – where are we 11-months later? Can the history of exercising and/or response help us improve for the future-implementation of change and continued testing is critical in furthering our oil spill response capability and capacity.Exercise Westwind – Operational Phase TwoExercise Westwind – Operational Phase Two

Regulating the intangible. Searching for safety culture in the Norwegian petroleum industry

The way organizational culture can influence safety has been a topic in safety research and accident investigations for decades. This has led to an increasing interest from regulators to include the concept of safety culture into the sphere of risk regulation. In the Norwegian petroleum regulations, a requirement for a “sound health, safety and environment culture” was introduced in 2002. The article presents a qualitative study of the perceived effects of this requirement on safety, seen from the perspective of both the regulator and the regulated companies.The study shows that introducing the concept of safety culture into regulation can have positive effects both within the regulated companies and within the regulator’s own organization. While certainly not being suited for a “command and control” approach to regulation, requirements to a “sound HSE culture” serves as an important policy statement in Norwegian regulations. It influences the whole institutional field to explore new approaches to safety. Introducing the concept of safety (or HSE) culture into the regulatory vocabulary has served as a sensitizing concept for both the regulator and the industry, thereby increasing both parties’ ability to address informal and systemic aspects of safety.

Estimating Long-Term Extreme Slamming From Breaking Waves

Characteristic loads for design of offshore structures are defined in terms of their annual exceedance probability, q. In the Norwegian Petroleum Regulations, q = 10−2 is required for the ultimate limit state (ULS), while q = 10−4 is required for the accidental limit state (ALS). In principle, a full long-term analysis (LTA) is required in order to obtain consistent estimates. This is straightforward for linear response problems, while it is a challenge for nonlinear problems, in particular if they additionally are of an on–off nature. The latter will typically be the case for loads due to breaking wave impacts. In this paper, the challenges related to estimation of characteristic slamming loads are discussed. Measured slamming loads from a model test are presented, and the observed large variability is discussed. The stochastic nature of slamming loads is studied using a simplified linear relation between the sea states and the Gumbel distribution parameter surfaces. The characteristic slamming loads with q-annual probability of exceedance are estimated from an LTA using the short-term distribution of the slamming loads and the long-term distribution of the sea states. The effect of integrating over a smaller area of the scatter diagram of the sea states is studied. The uncertainties in response from slamming loads are compared to a more common response process, and the relation between variability and the number of realizations in each sea state is looked into.

Structural reform and petroleum (environment) regulations in the Northern Territory

The opportunity for onshore oil and gas development in the Northern Territory (NT) has grown exponentially in recent years, driven by the NT’s expansive shale gas resources in the McArthur Basin and elsewhere. Such resources provide many potential benefits to the territory’s economy, including job creation and clean, cost-effective energy generation opportunities. Critical to the successful development of the industry is a legitimate social licence to operate with the community, for which strong environmental regulation is a key enabling factor. Communities must be assured that oil and gas activities can provide ecologically sustainable development, and a transparent, evidence- and risk-based framework is the best way to achieve this. Following the NT Inquiry into Hydraulic Fracturing by Dr Allan Hawke in November 2014, and further review of the environmental assessment and approval processes in May 2015, the NT Government has implemented structural reform and developed contemporary outcome-focused Petroleum (Environment) Regulations to balance environmental protection with the economic development benefits offered by the onshore gas industry. Those objectives include that petroleum development in the NT: is consistent with the principles of ecologically sustainable development; reduces risks and impacts to levels that are as low as reasonably practicable and acceptable; ensures meaningful engagement with stakeholder; and, provides for transparency of decision-making and publication of approved environment management plans in full. This extended abstract provides an update of the reform of the regulatory framework, the regulatory objectives, the regulations by which they’re achieved, and the consultation process followed to gain wide stakeholder support. It will also highlight that strong regulations alone do not provide a robust regulatory framework, and the steps the NT Government is taking to achieve its objective. The regulations are planned to come into force in the third quarter of 2016. Meanwhile, a full review of the NT Petroleum Act and development of Petroleum (Resource Management) Regulations that takes into consideration the recommendations from the Hawke Inquiry into Hydraulic Fracturing in the NT is underway.

Early engagement

In mid-2010, amendments to the Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Safety) Regulations 2009 and the associated Levies Regulations provided, for the first time, a mechanism for operators of proposed facilities to enter formal dialogue with the regulator about the safety of a proposed facility early in its design. The amended provisions provided flexibility to the timing of agreeing to a scope of validation and the means for the regulator to recover the costs of assessing a submission made at this early stage. Since mid-2010, a number of operators have chosen to submit early engagement safety cases for assessment and feedback to manage regulatory risk. Such submissions have also provided the regulator with the opportunity to challenge the operator’s consideration of inherent safety principles at a point in the design of a facility when changes could be reasonably expected to be made. While the present arrangements have been welcomed by industry and the regulator alike, they do encompass a number of challenges. In particular, the application of existing provisions not appropriately focused on concept selection and design has required the use of suboptimal administrative arrangements. The National Offshore Petroleum Safety Authority (NOPSA) and the National Offshore Petroleum and Environmental Management Authority (NOPSEMA) have continued to work with the Department of Resources Energy and Tourism to ensure the regime includes more appropriately targeted provisions applicable to all proposed production facilities in the future. This extended abstract summarises the latest experiences and the view about where early engagement is headed in pursuit of a safer Australian offshore petroleum industry.

Unconventional natural gas resources in Pennsylvania: The backstory of the modern Marcellus Shale play

Pennsylvania is not only the birthplace of the modern petroleum industry but also the focus of the modern Marcellus Shale gas play. For more than 150 yr, Pennsylvania has experienced a rich history of oil and gas exploration and production, witnessed the advent of modern petroleum regulations, and now sits deep in the heart of the largest domestic shale gas play the United States has ever seen. Although a known source rock for decades, the Marcellus Shale was not considered a viable gas reservoir until Range Resources Corporation (Range) discovered the play with its completion of the Renz No. 1 well in Washington County in October 2004. Using horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing techniques used by operators working the Barnett Shale gas play, Range has gone on to complete hundreds of horizontal shale gas wells in Washington County alone. Other operators have followed suit in counties from one corner of the state to the other, and as of June 2011, the Commonwealth has issued nearly 6500 Marcellus Shale gas well permits. Based on publicly reported well completion and production data, an average Marcellus Shale gas well requires 2.9 million gal of water during the hydraulic fracturing process and produces 1.3 mmcf gas/day. Furthermore, the U.S. Energy Information Administration has estimated that as of mid-2011, daily Marcellus Shale gas production in Pennsylvania exceeds 2.8 bcf. Because of the level of drilling activity and production associated with the Marcellus play, Pennsylvania has become the nexus of shale gas production and water management issues.

Why risk acceptance criteria need to be defined by the authorities and not the industry?

In various industries it is common to use risk acceptance criteria to support decision-making. The criteria are seen as absolute in the sense that measures need to be implemented if the criteria are not met. In Norway the petroleum regulations state that the operator has a duty to formulate risk acceptance criteria relating to major accidents and to the environment. This practice is in line with the internal control principle, which states that the operator has the full responsibility for identifying the hazards and seeing that they are controlled. In this paper we discuss the rationale for this practice. The expected utility theory, which is the backbone for all economic thinking, is used as a basis for the discussion. We show that if risk acceptance criteria are to be introduced as a risk management tool, they should be formulated by the authorities, as is the common scheme seen in many countries and industries, for example in the UK. Risk acceptance criteria formulated by the industry would not in general serve the interest of the society as a whole.

Australian Offshore Petroleum Legislative Framework

This paper traces the development of the Australian offshore petroleum legislative framework, which is comprised of Commonwealth and State acts, regulations and administrative guidelines. First this paper looks at how the present arrangements have been arrived at, touching on major developments including the Offshore Petroleum Agreement of 1967 and the Offshore Constitutional Settlement of 1979, through to recent reforms to the Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006 (Cth) (OPGGS Act), with a focus on the Montara Commission of Inquiry and its Report. This paper also examines the interplay between the States and Commonwealth in implementing the legislative framework, including the mirror legislation arrangements. The paper focuses on the introduction of a new national regulator, to take effect from 1 January 2012. This entity will replace, in part, the Designated Authorities established under the OPGGS Act and will include an expanded role for the existing National Offshore Petroleum Safety Authority (NOPSA). Recent reviews of the regulatory framework, and investigations of the 2008 Varanus Island pipeline explosion and the 2009 Montara incident highlighted inadequacies in the Australian offshore petroleum regulatory regime. This paper looks at the findings from those reports and focuses on the recent reforms. At the time of the blowout from the Montara oil field on 21 August 2009, reform was already underway on the Australian offshore petroleum regulatory framework. Changes to the OPGGS Act had been recommended by several reviews. The Montara incident and the Deepwater Horizon blow-out in the Macondo oilfield in the Gulf of Mexico brought the safety and environmental aspects of offshore petroleum regulation into public focus, and provided further impetus for reform.

Australian States and Northern Territory acreage update at APPEA 2010

Peter Green is the Geoscience Manager: Energy Geoscience in the Geological Survey Queensland and has extensive experience in basin studies, geoscience and the development of petroleum regulation in Queensland. This paper provides a summary of the land releases for petroleum exploration for onshore areas and coastal waters of Australia for 2010. The summaries include upstream petroleum acreage opportunities for the states and the Northern Territory, and geothermal energy exploration opportunities. The rise in interest in export liquefied natural gas projects has ensured petroleum exploration and production has remained strong. Interest in acquiring petroleum acreage to explore for both conventional and non-conventional plays remains high. Australian state and the Northern Territory governments continue to provide access to land and promotional opportunities for companies to undertake exploration and development of our petroleum resources. Acreage on offer provides a mix of exploration opportunities from conventional oil and gas through to the unconventional plays such as shale gas and tight gas. This change in acreage on offer reflects the changing nature of the onshore petroleum industry in Australia.

Comparative Law as an Instrument in Transnational Law: the example of petroleum regulation

This paper argues that comparative law is a powerful tool in areas of law that transcend national legal systems. It examines the petroleum regulatory framework in Australia and Norway both of which use the petroleum licencing and concession system. It identifies common functions within the licencing and concession systems, including the legislative framework, award of licence, the property rights the licence confers, and the development of petroleum fields. These similar functions enable comparison between the two jurisdictions which transcends the usual difficulties of comparing common and civil law jurisdictions. It concludes that these common functions of the petroleum licencing concession systems enable the use of comparative methodology to compare regulatory functions in civil and common law jurisdictions to identify solutions to regulatory issues in the Australian petroleum regulatory framework. This article is available in Bond Law Review: http://epublications.bond.edu.au/blr/vol21/iss3/2 42 COMPARATIVE LAW AS AN INSTRUMENT IN TRANSNATIONAL LAW: THE EXAMPLE OF PETROLEUM REGULATION

Marine Pollution from the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry: Review of Major Conventions and Russian Law (Part I)

This article discusses provisions of major international and regional conventions that regulate marine pollution arising from offshore petroleum exploration and production, and examines the Russian environmental regime for offshore oil and gas operations. The article analyses existing federal environmental legislation in Russia, its application to the offshore petroleum industry, and the Russian administrative structure overseeing the ecological regime. The article also briefly discusses sources of marine pollution from offshore activities, and provides an overview of the Russian offshore industry and offshore hydrocarbon resources on the Russian continental shelf. The purpose of this article is to introduce readers to the legal framework for environmental and offshore petroleum regulation in Russia, determine whether Russian law adequately deals with pollution from offshore operations, and provide an update on the present position of international law on this issue. The international regime is discussed in Part I of the article and the Russian regulatory system will be examined in Part II.

Incidents/accidents classification and reporting in Statoil

Based on requirements in the new petroleum regulations from Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) and the realisation of a need to improve and rationalise the routines for reporting and follow up of incidents, Statoil Exploration & Production Norway (Statoil E&P Norway) has formulated a new strategy and process for handling of incidents/accidents. The following past experiences serve as basis for the changes made to incident reporting in Statoil E&P Norway: • Too much resources were spent on a comprehensive handling and analysis of a vast amount of incidents with less importance for the safety level, taking the focus away from the more severe and important issues at hand. • The assessment of “Risk Factor”, i.e. the combination of recurrence frequency and consequence, was difficult to use. The high degree of subjectivity involved in the determination of the “Risk Factor” (in particular the estimation of the recurrence frequency) resulted in poor data quality and lack of consistency in the data material. The new system for categorisation and handling of undesirable incidents was established in January 2002. The intention was to get a higher degree of focus on serious incidents (injuries, damages, loss and near misses), with a thorough handling and follow-up. This is reflected throughout the handling of the serious incidents, all the way from immediate notification of the incident, through investigation and follow-up of corrective and preventive actions. Simultaneously, it was also an objective to rationalise/simplify the handling of less serious incidents. These incidents are, however, subjected to analyses twice a year in order to utilize the learning opportunity that they also provide. A year after the introduction of this new system for categorisation and follow-up of undesirable incidents, Statoil’s experiences are predominantly good: • The intention to get a higher degree of focus on serious incidents (injuries, damages, loss and near misses), has been met. • The data quality for the more serious incidents (5% of the total number of incidents registered) has improved. • The improved handling of incidents has contributed to more reliable and accurate HSE indicators at a corporate level. • More user friendly codes in place for incident registration (based on MTO methodology). • The revised matrix gives distinct criteria with respect to which investigation level to be initiated for a specific incident. All activities related to handling of undesirable incidents have been summarised and illustrated on a two-sided plastic form, incorporating both the categorisation matrix and the activity flowchart (see Figs. 1 and 4).

Bless the Pure and Humble: Texas Lawyers and Oil Regulation, 1919-1936.

When oil was first struck in America in the nineteenth century, the courts were ill-prepared to deal with the legal issues it raised. Since it flowed across property lines, as a deer or other wild animal could cross boundaries, judges resorted to the of to determine ownership--the person who extracted it had full rights to it. Applied to the massive oil boom of the 1920s in Texas, this rule precipitated a series of crises, forcing operators and royalty owners to produce all they could regardless of current market conditions and demand and mindless of the waste and loss incurred. By 1927 the implications of the rule of capture were clear, and pressure was mounting for federal regulation of petroleum production. In that year attorneys in the Houston firm of Vinson and Elkins joined efforts by Pure Oil (the producer) and Humble Oil (the buyer and pipeline owner) to develop unitization rules for the 5400-acre Yates Oil Field in Pecos County, Texas. Amid their legal maneuvering the Texas Railroad Commission stepped in, issuing a proration rule and effectively assuming unitization powers over state production, thereby giving rise to charges by small producers that the state had sold out to big oil. The conflict over proration that resulted represented a legal and ideological clashes between principles of laissez-faire and progressive regulation. By 1935, when Congress enacted the Connally Hot Oil Act, the legal principles were settled and the battle for control of petroleum production had been won by the states. Nicholas George Malavis's well-reasoned and sophisticated study of the development of petroleum regulation offers historical and legal analysis of the basic issues affecting property rights and the public interest and traces the legal moves that shaped a new regulatory system centered around the Texas Railroad Commission. It provides a fascinating view of the multiple roles of lawyers in putting the new system in place as they worked for a variety of clients to resolve the serious conflicts plaguing the oil industry in its efforts to manage overproduction in the 1920s and 1930s. Access to the internal records of Vinson and Elkins has allowed Malavis to provide readers a rare view inside the world of lawyer-client relations. He describes how prominent attorney James Elkins and others applied their legal talents, negotiating skills, and political influence to fight for solutions to their problems that would help define the parameters of the new prorating system. Bless the Pure and the Humble, with its thorough research and use of organizational records to elucidate a broad and important theme, provides a valuable model for scholarly studies of corporate history. It offers important contributions to our knowledge of legal, business, and regional histories. Although necessarily focused on Texas history, the well-told story in this book has relevance far beyond the state's boundaries and will inform students of petroleum and property law and those interested in energy and conservation history.

ASSESSMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PETROLEUM ACTIVITY IMPACTS: COONGIE LAKES CASE STUDY

The introduction of changes to petroleum regulation in South Australia will, and have, resulted in some concern by industry, particularly in the area of public consultation. Primary Industry and Resources South Australia (PIRSA)-Petroleum Group's development of a set of guidelines for determination of project environmental significance is aimed to give a clearer indication of the level of consultation, documentation and assessment appropriate for each project. The Coongie Lakes assessment case study gives an indication of how these concepts can be applied in a practical sense.The assessment process establishes scales for the level of certainty (predictability) of the potential environmental impacts and the degree to which the consequences of the potential impacts can be managed or avoided (manageability). This process was undertaken for the seismic proposal in the Coongie Lakes area and provides an innovative approach to project assessment. The predictability and manageability charts prepared for all potential impacts provides a method of presenting a vast amount of information very concisely. The definition of assessment guidelines allows potential environmental impacts to be expressed in a quantitative manner, and leads to evaluation of these impacts against a defined level of community acceptability. The approach also demonstrates a degree of rigour in the assessment process and is transparent to all stakeholders. In addition, the predictability and manageability charts focus attention to issues which have higher ratings, and thus a need for closer attention. The feedback from stakeholders on this innovative assessment technique indicates a general acceptance of the approach and the criteria definitions used, although some adjustment and refinement is required.

China's jurisdiction over its offshore petroleum resources

Abstract The recent promulgation of China's offshore petroleum regulations has attracted worldwide attention. The law is of particular importance to foreign investors due to possible massive involvement of foreign interests in China's biggest oil venture. However, the success of this multi‐billion‐dollar offshore oil development program hinges on a single issue: to what extent does China have the sovereign rights over its offshore mineral resources? The aim of the present paper is to: (1) Review China's position on the continental shelf regime; (2) Discuss China's maritime boundary problems with its coastal neighbors in light of the new law of the sea; (3) Analyze China's options under the status quo in the region; and (4) Note briefly China's oil development policy based on the new offshore regulations.

The security dimension of China’s offshore oil development

On February 15 and March 15, 1982, the People's Republic of China opened the first round of bidding on some 150,000 square kilometers of offshore oil exploration contract areas in the South China Sea and Yellow Sea. Of the 46 foreign oil companies that had participated in broad seismic surveys of the Chinese continental shelf in 1980, 35 indicated intent to submit bids. Concurrently with the first round of bidding, Beijing promulgated offshore petroleum regulations and a comprehensive corporate profits tax law, and then announced the formation of the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) with authority to negotiate oil exploration and development contracts with the foreign oil companies. These dramatic events heralded the largest single commercial venture ever undertaken in concert between China and the outside world, and perhaps the largest industrial project ever attempted by China itself. Conservative projections place the cost of initial exploratory drilling in the range of $3-5 billion in the first five years.' Assuming substantial commercial discoveries, the exploration phase will be followed by investments of an additional $10-20 billion (1980 U.S. dollars) for the production platforms, subsea pipelines, coastal refineries, and other installations required for offshore development. Early estimates of the resource potential of the Chinese continental shelf vary widely, but the seismic surveys and early drilling results indicate that discoveries could be comparable to the petroleum potential of the Gulf of Campeche (Mexico) or the North Sea.' In any event, the total surface area of the Chinese continental shelf is as large as Texas and Oklahoma combined, and the shelf itself is underlaid with vast sedimentary basins ranging in

International Earth Science Directory

A worldwide directory of more than 900 national earth science agencies and more than 80 related major international organizations is available, free of charge, from the U.S. Geological Survey.The 87‐page directory provides the names, addresses, and, if available, the names of the chief administrators of the major governmental earth science agencies with functions similar to those of the USGS. Coded designations for each agency indicate its principal function and correspond approximately to principal functions of the operating divisions of the USGS: cartography (National Mapping Division), geology (Geologic Division), hydrology (Water Resources Division), and minerals and petroleum regulation (Conservation Division). The information in the directory is current as of November 1979.

Petroleum Exploration Strategies in Developing Countries: ABSTRACT

The petroleum industry strategy of most developing countries is not clearly defined. Strategies can differ significantly, because of differences in potential, willingness to accept risk, distance to markets, etc. from country to country. Further differences result from the degree to which governments are knowledgeable as to the significance of their own data. It can be said that the End_Page 966------------------------------ quality of a government's technical information is the key factor in its formulation of an effective strategy. The status of petroleum exploration in each country must be assessed, and the most important elements or tools to be used by governments to achieve the objectives of their strategies must be understood. These are such instruments as Petroleum Regulations, Reconnaissance Licenses, and Exploration and Production Licenses. Next, it is necessary to consider how the principal objectives can be achieved and how strategies can be improved as scenarios change. With this background, a sequence of actions can be proposed and the petroleum industry assistance offered by the United Nations Department can be evaluated. End_of_Article - Last_Page 967------------