Petroglyph Site Research Articles

WURRANDERRA’S SYMBOLS: AN EXPLORATION AND CONTEXTUALISATION OF THE THURK PETROGLYPH SITE (KINGSTON-ON-MURRAY) ON THE MURRAY RIVER, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

This article describes and contextualises the rock art at the Thurk Petroglyph Site on the Murray River in South Australia using multiple methods. The Thurk Aboriginal engravings comprise at least 524 motifs made up predominantly of geometric line elements as well as a small number of other ‘simple’ geometric motifs, two ‘bird tracks’, one figurative design (a ‘fish’) and a possible anthropomorphous figure. This paper provides the first synthesis of rock art sites/complexes and motifs from other sites on the Murray River as well as visual symbols recorded from senior Aboriginal ‘knowledge carriers’. These syntheses allow us to consider the relationship of Thurk to other cultural places and to highlight and honour the traditional knowledges and beliefs which underpin the rock art. Thurk’s placement within the riverscape, its unique geological canvas, lack of observable ‘domestic’ archaeological evidence combined with it being the likely upstream extent of Murray River rock art in South Australia contribute additional dimensions to its cultural significance. That Thurk’s rock art, and the broader site, have been desecrated by gratuitous graffiti, vandalism and infrastructure brings into sharp focus Australia’s poor record of heritage protection and provides a challenge to current and future generations of non-Aboriginal people to remedy this past.

Diversity of fungi associated with petroglyph sites in the Negev Desert, Israel, and their potential role in bioweathering.

The petroglyphs of the Negev Desert, Israel, are famous and valuable archaeological remains. Previous studies have investigated the microbial communities associated with petroglyphs and their potential role in stone deterioration; nevertheless, the role of fungi remains unclear. In this study, the fungal communities present on the stone and, as a comparison, in the surrounding environment (soil and air) at Negev petroglyph sites were analyzed by means of culture-dependent and -independent (metagenomic) techniques. The metagenomic results showed a high fungal biodiversity in the soil, and both approaches highlighted the prevalence of species producing melanized, large, thick-walled spores (mainly Alternaria spp.). From the air sampling, mostly Cladosporium spp. were retrieved. On the other hand, on the rock, the results seem to indicate a low presence of fungi, but with a rock-specialized mycobiota consisting of extremotolerant microcolonial fungi (MCF) (e.g., Vermiconidia and Coniosporium) and lichens (Flavoplaca). In addition, low proportions of cosmopolitan fungi were detected on the stone, but the comparison of the data clearly indicates that they are transients from the surrounding environment. The ability of the isolated strains to dissolve CaCO3 and therefore be a potential threat to the petroglyphs (limestone substrate) was tested, but only one strain resulted in positive acid production under laboratory conditions. Nevertheless, both lichens and MCF detected in this study are well-known stone deteriogens, which may have a significant impact on the petroglyph's deterioration.

Rethinking the Huatabampo Archaeological Tradition of Northwest Mexico

The Huatabampo tradition was first defined by Gordon Ekholm, in 1938, and refers to those sites in the coastal plain in northern Sinaloa and southern Sonora lacking architecture but containing well-manufactured plain ceramics with complex shapes. Recent investigations in the region are helping to refine the chronology, geographical extension, cultural attributes, and ethnicity. With 20 radiocarbon dates, we can place this tradition as spanning from 200 BC to AD 1450. The maximum geographical extension ranges from the Middle Rio Yaqui in the north to the Rio San Lorenzo in Sinaloa. The associated sites of this complex are represented by dispersed houses, indicative of ranchería-type settlements, funerary mounds, shell middens, and petroglyph sites. At about AD 1150, Aztatlán pottery and other commodities from southern Sinaloa were incorporated mostly as mortuary offerings. We also provide evidence that the Huatabampo archaeological tradition is a local culture representing the occupation of the Cahitan-speaking groups, Yoremem/Mayos and Yoemem/Yaquis, of the coastal plain.

Western Message Petroglyphs: A Faux Indian Picture-Writing Project in the American West

The term “Western Message Petroglyphs” (WMPs) refers to a number of petroglyph sites found scattered among eight western states that are recognized by their shared image content and layout. The imagery is drawn largely from a mash-up of late historic Native American sign-gesture language and picture-writing traditions inter-mixed with pan-cultural imagery from around the world. An increasing number of sites that fit this mold have been reported over the past 85 years or so, currently numbering 39 in all. There is no question that these sites date to post-European contact based on images in some panels that depict Euro-American cultural content (e.g., western-style house, rifle, whiskey keg, horse, etc.). The post-contact era is also apparent in the method used in rendering the engraved images evidenced by the smooth angular lines and chisel strikes produced by metal tools. This paper focuses on narrowing the time frame for these sites based on two additional streams of evidence. First, patterned associations with historic landscape settings tied to the era of western expansion bind the sites together into a coherent whole and set a floor for their oldest probable dates. An example of four sites located in Utah and Arizona illustrates their connection to the last quarter of the nineteenth century and the opening years of the twentieth. Secondly, a study of their imagery supports the proposed dates by revealing a “smoking gun” for the source of many of the individual icons. An example of the methodology used to translate a Western Message Petroglyph panel is described, and a profile of the central author who appears to have acted with a small group of others is suggested in order to aid in the search for this person(s) in the historic record of the American West.

Documenting Archaeological Petroglyph Sites with the Use of 3D Terrestrial Laser Scanners—A Case Study of Petroglyphs in Kyrgyzstan

The use of 3D terrestrial laser scanners (TLS) in the documentation of archaeological sites is an effective method of collecting information about the area under study. The wide range of acquired data makes this method a versatile tool, and not limited only to documentation tasks. This article presents the possibilities of 3D TLS and their postprocessing software in the pioneering work related to the digitization of exhibits in The Petroglyphs of Cholpon-Ata Open-air Museum near Lake Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan. A 3DScaMITE methodology adapted for that task is highlighted. The data obtained during the scanning were used to build high-accuracy 3D digital petroglyph models, together with their location within the open-air museum area. The acquired models also allowed a detailed analysis of the geometric parameters of the cavities forming the petroglyph figures. The results of the analysis confirmed the thesis about improper preservation of petroglyphs. It has been demonstrated in this way that the used TLS method is completely universal in documenting petroglyphs, including the location and shape of their place of creation, as well as creating a sufficiently accurate analysis of the structure of drawings.

A Multi-Analytical Approach to Infer Mineral–Microbial Interactions Applied to Petroglyph Sites in the Negev Desert of Israel

Petroglyph sites exist all over the world. They are one of the earliest forms of mankind’s expression and a precursor to art. Despite their outstanding value, comprehensive research on conservation and preservation of rock art is minimal, especially as related to biodeterioration. For this reason, the main objective of this study was to explore the factors involved in the degradation of petroglyph sites in the Negev desert of Israel, with a focus on biodegradation processes. Through the use of culture-independent microbiological methods (metagenomics), we characterized the microbiomes of the samples, finding they were dominated by bacterial communities, in particular taxa of Actinobacteria and Cyanobacteria, with resistance to radiation and desiccation. By means of XRF and Raman spectroscopies, we defined the composition of the stone (calcite and quartz) and the dark crust (clay minerals with Mn and Fe oxides), unveiling the presence of carotenoids, indicative of biological colonization. Optical microscopy and SEM–EDX analyses on thin sections highlighted patterns of weathering, possibly connected to the presence of biodeteriorative microorganisms that leach the calcareous matrix from the bedrock and mobilize metal cations from the black varnish for metabolic processes, slowly weathering it.

PETROGLYPHS OF SIKACHI-ALYAN – MALYSHEVO (LOWER AMUR REGION). THE EXPERIENCE OF INTERPRETATION OF THE SYMBOLIC CONTENT OF THE MYTHOLOGICAL PLOT

The relevance of this study is beyond doubt, since the author in this article offers a description and interpretation of the semantic content of the symbolism of the plot with two masks on stone No. 31 of the petroglyph site near the villages of Sikachi-Alyan and Malyshevo, located 70 km from the mountains. Khabarovsk. The images were described by Academician A.P. Okladnikov, V.E. Medvedev proposed a semantic interpretation of one of the masks on this stone. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that the author uses his own method of iconographic description of the drawings of masks, analyzes the symbolic content of the composition, attracts ethnographic information about rituals with similar external attributes. A wide range of general scientific and special research methods was used to write the work. The sources were scientific articles and books on the research topic, including the author's articles written earlier on these issues. The result of the study is the interpretation of the drawings on the stone as a holistic and interconnected composition of two masks and a vertical strip as characters of myths and an attribute of the ritual and ceremonial actions of settled fishermen of the Amur.

HERO STONES AND OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS OF LIANPUI MIZORAM

A large number of memorial stones, numerous anthropic holes, few “Y” shaped wooden posts and one petroglyph site were found at Lianpui during the course of village to village survey for antiquarian remains in the villages of Mizoram in 2011. One of the unique features of the memorial stones of Lianpui village are the elaborate and intricate carvings of various motifs. They have depiction of a central human figure along with other figures, birds, animals, mithun heads, gongs, lizard, etc. Similar motifs are also found parallel to the petroglyph found at this village. It is proposed to discuss these remains that reflect the culture of the Mizos prior to their adoption of Christianity and forsaking of past practices.

Microscopic and biomolecular complementary approaches to characterize bioweathering processes at petroglyph sites from the Negev Desert, Israel.

Throughout the Negev Desert highlands, thousands of ancient petroglyphs sites are susceptible to deterioration processes that may result in the loss of this unique rock art. Therefore, the overarching goal of the current study was to characterize the composition, diversity and effects of microbial colonization of the rocks to find ways of protecting these unique treasures. The spatial organization of the microbial colonizers and their relationships with the lithic substrate were analysed using scanning electron microscopy. This approach revealed extensive epilithic and endolithic colonization and close microbial-mineral interactions. Shotgun sequencing analysis revealed various taxa from the archaea, bacteria and some eukaryotes. Metagenomic coding sequences (CDS) of these microbial lithobionts exhibited specific metabolic pathways involved in the rock elements' cycles and uptake processes. Thus, our results provide evidence for the potential participation of the microorganisms colonizing these rocks during different solubilization and mineralization processes. These damaging actions may contribute to the deterioration of this extraordinary rock art and thus threaten this valuable heritage. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing, in conjunction with the in situ scanning electron microscopy study, can thus be considered an effective strategy to understand the complexity of the weathering processes occurring at petroglyph sites and other cultural heritage assets.

Petroglyphs of Mount Dyalbak, Eastern Altai

This study focuses on a petroglyph site of Mount Dyalbak in the northeastern part of Balyktuyul village, in the Ulagansky District, Altai Republic. Images are engraved mostly on horizontal planes of the Devonian limestone of which the mountain slope is composed. We give a detailed description of the documentation methods. Photography was carried out under the oblique natural light, though certain areas of the planes were photographed using fl ash. Engravings were copied mostly on a tablet computer. On the basis of visual observations, the condition of planes with petroglyphs is described, conclusions regarding the principal threats are given, and measures aimed at the preservation of the site are proposed. Rocks and planes with engravings are described in detail. Most images date to the Early Middle Ages. Their motifs and characters have numerous parallels in Central Asian art. There are scenes of hunting, armed fi ghting, and separate pictures of bows and quivers, relating to the cult of weapons and militarism. Two depicted warriors are holding spears with banners. Images of animals include those of mountain goats, reindeer, and boars. Some motifs are unusual: yurts and a pair of Siberian stags, male and female, related to the fertility cult. Some images, such as that of a chariot, date to the Late Bronze Age, while others, like those engraved on a separate small stone, are recent.

Technological parameters of rock art at the Kalgutinsky Rudnik site on the Ukok Plateau, Russian Altai region

One of the most common problems encountered in research on open-air petroglyph sites is determining the age of the imagery. Most images are not covered by calcite or other deposits which can be directly dated. Archaeological layers located under petroglyph panels may allow connections between imagery and datable cultural contexts to be established. When archaeological layers are lacking, the analysis of stylistic elements of petroglyphs themselves can be highly significant for temporal and cultural attribution. We regard style a Bos including not only artistic characteristics of images but also the ways in which rock panels were modified as well. Technological features can be important for understanding the broader concept of style in rock art. As illustrated by the open-air Kalgutinsky Rudnik site in the Russian Altai region, natural substrate characteristics often demanded specific technological adaptations that can be revealed by the analysis of anthropogenic and natural traces on rock surfaces. These data supplement the discussion of dating the earliest petroglyphs from the Kalgutinsky Rudnik rock art site.

Representation and meaning in rock art: the case of Algonquian rock images

ABSTRACT Over the past decade, discussions on ontology, animism and semiotics have generated numerous avenues of research on the meanings of rock images. In a context marked by the increasing recognition of Indigenous knowledges, a number of archaeologists have questioned representationalism and the idea that rock art has a fixed meaning in the past. In this paper, we discuss these new approaches with reference to the rock art of the Algonquian-speaking peoples of Central and Eastern Canada. We show how, for many Algonquian groups, rock art signified and continues to signify their experiences and practices in a continually emergent world. As such, we recognize that meaning within Algonquian relational ontologies is fluid without compromising the material-semiotic representations and intentions of the original creators. To illustrate this point, we examine the layers of significance associated with the rock art of the Canadian Shield and discuss a petroglyph site from the Canadian Maritimes.

Red Bird and Sequoyah: A Reply to Simek et al.

Red Bird was a Cherokee murdered at the Red Bird River Petroglyph site (15Cy51) and buried at the Red Bird River Rockshelter (15Cy52) during the late eighteenth century, where he left an important record of traditional petroglyphs. His legacy is key to understanding the origins of Sequoyah's Cherokee Syllabary and its relationship to rock art. Personal testimonies of Red Bird's descendants are supported by primary documents and archaeological evidence, including the letters of Sequoyah's maternal uncle, John Watts, and prototypes of Cherokee Syllabary characters engraved at 15Cy52 in 1808, when members of Sequoyah's matrilineal family resided nearby.

New Discoveries of Petroglyphs in Vangchhia: A Preliminary Study

Vangchhia is a small village in Mizoram, lying on the Indo-Myanmar border. Many engraved menhirs were discovered at Vangchhia during the course of exploration. Also, petroglyphs were found in four localities of this particular village. Though their number is very limited, they are very significant for study as they will reflect the cultural life of the people who carved these petroglyphs before the current inhabitants of the area arrived. In terms of subject matter, they are similar in style and theme to their engraved counterparts on the menhirs found in this village. These petroglyphs are made by applying the simple methods of engraving and carving on the exposed rock outcrops situated on the hill slopes overlooking the Tiau River, which flows about a kilometer to the east of the petroglyph sites. It is worth studying these petroglyphs to reconstruct the cultural history of Mizoram mainly before the introduction of Christianity in Mizoram, as the Mizos stopped the practice of engraving petroglyphs onthe rock surfaces after their conversion to Christianity in the 19th century. So this work has been taken up for discussion. This paper will discuss the form, subject matter and distribution of the rock art sites in this village and the probable purpose of these petroglyphs.

Petroglyphs of Mount Kremennaya and Problems of Their Chronology

The paper features rock art images of Kremennaya mountain, which is situated in the North-West part of Tepsey archeological microdistrict. The images were discovered by Kemerovo archeologists in 2015. The opening of the petroglyph site replenished the collection of graphic sources of one of the largest rock art sites of the Minusinsk Basin. It also revealed a completely new graphic tradition of the late Bronze Age. In total, four surfaces covered with rock carvings were found, i.e. 52 distinct figures. They are presumably related to the Karasuk and Tagar cultures. According to the stylistic characteristics of Bronze Age, at least two art traditions were distinguished in the context of Karasuk culture: "Wire" figures and "full-weight" silhouette characters). Similar images were found in other site of the Tepsey mountains. Excavations performed in the 1960s revealed that Tepsey archaeological microdistrict has both burial and settlement sites of two chronological stages of the Karasuk culture (XIII to XI centuries, BC). The images of Kremennaya mount provide a more detailed understanding of Tepsey, which is one of the largest rock art sites of Minusinsk basin.

Seasonal diversity of the bacterial communities associated with petroglyphs sites from the Negev Desert, Israel

Rock art sites in the form of petroglyphs are found in the Negev Desert in southern Israel. These petroglyph sites include thousands of images depicting the life and culture of people in the region over the years. As they are part of the desert environment, these petroglyphs are exposed to natural and anthropogenic weathering processes. In natural rock sites, it is known that climatic conditions influence weathering and biofilm community development (Friedmann in Orig Life 10:223–235, 1980; Li et al. in PloS one 11:(9),163–287, 2016) Therefore, in order to develop tools for preservation and remediation, it is imperative to ascertain possible seasonal diversity of surface-inhabiting bacterial communities. To do so, we undertook to study and characterize the microbial communities inhabiting the rock sites during winter and summer. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies using 16S rRNA gene were implemented on rock-surface slab samples to identify the microbial communities. 16S rRNA gene sequencing data revealed the presence of five main bacterial phyla, among them Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Chloroflexi across the analyzed sites. The predominant phylum was Cyanobacteria (10–60% relative abundance), followed by Actinobacteria (20–60% relative abundance), Proteobacteria (5–35%), Bacteroidetes (0.02–35%), and Chloroflexi (1–12%). There was no significant difference in the bacterial diversity between samples from winter and summer. Five main phyla were observed in samples from the two seasons, winter (December) 2017 and summer (July) 2018. This study provides an important first step in understanding the possible seasonal dynamic of bacterial communities associated with the petroglyphs.

Protecting Stone Heritage in the Painted Desert: Employing the Rock Art Stability Index in the Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona

Located in northeastern Arizona (USA), Petrified Forest National Park (PEFO) presents a unique story of both geologic and human history. Though perhaps most well-known for its abundant petrified wood and being part of the Painted Desert, visitors are often surprised when they discover PEFO hosts many ancient petroglyph sites. Over the years, many attempts have been made to record the petroglyph sites, but nothing has been done to assess their geomorphic stability. To address this shortcoming, we employed the Rock Art Stability Index (RASI) to assess geologic stability and (potential) deterioration of rock art sites in PEFO. Used for more than a decade as a triage for researchers assessing which rock art panels/sites are in the most danger of eroding, RASI uses a rank-based system to assess over three-dozen rock decay parameters, resulting in an overall condition analysis of a rock art panel. The findings can then be grouped together by site location to gain a clearer understanding of overall decay processes responsible for (potential) erosion. This study highlights RASI, its use as a low-cost, non-invasive, rapid field assessment technique, and assesses the geomorphic stability of five major petroglyph sites in the Petrified Forest National Park.

Illomas: the three thousand year history of a rock art site in Southern Peru

In 1936, Leonidas Bernedo Málaga reported the discovery of a large collection of petroglyphs near the village of Illomas. We present the results of a recent study of the site, describing both the rock art and the organization of its surrounding ceremonial complex in light of our broader understanding of the prehistory of what is now the Department of Arequipa. Used for almost three thousand years, Illomas changed in function as population significantly increased in the region by the end of the Middle Horizon. Illomas, as well as other petroglyph sites in this rock art-rich region, was an important locus of worship and aggregation that has been underexplored by the broader archaeological community.

Insights into bacterial communities associated with petroglyph sites from the Negev Desert, Israel

Rock art sites containing petroglyphs are found throughout the Negev Desert of southern Israel. Recently, as more sites have been revealed, there has been an increasing awareness of their importance as a cultural heritage resource. However, the rocks on which the petroglyphs were engraved are exposed to natural and anthropogenic weathering processes. In order to characterize the bacterial communities that may play a role in the weathering of rock surfaces and petroglyphs panels, we undertook culture-independent (Next Generation Sequencing technologies) and culture-dependent methods to identify the bacterial communities on these rock surfaces. The Results reveal that the most common bacterial components at two petroglyphs sites studied were Actinobacteria (33%), Cyanobacteria (30%), Proteobacteria (15%) and Bacteriodetes (7%). Further study and isolation revealed several Cyanobacteria strains related to the Oscillatoriales and Synecococcales orders. This study provides an important first step in understanding the bacterial community structure that may be associated with the weathering of petroglyphs in this region.

The Red Bird River Shelter (15CY52) Revisited: The Archaeology of the Cherokee Syllabary and of Sequoyah in Kentucky

This article reanalyzes petroglyphs from the Red Bird River Shelter (15CY52), a small sandstone shelter in Kentucky. In 2009–2013, it was claimed that some of the carvings at the site represented the earliest known examples of Cherokee Syllabary writing, dating to the first two decades of the nineteenth century. It was also suggested that Sequoyah, the Cherokee artist and intellectual who invented the Cherokee Syllabary in the early nineteenth century, had made these petroglyph versions during a visit to see his white paternal family living in Kentucky. Our reanalysis categorically contests this interpretation. We do not see Cherokee Syllabary writing at Red Bird River Shelter. We do not believe that historical evidence supports the notion that Sequoyah had white relatives in Kentucky whom he visited there at the time required for him to have authored those petroglyphs. We also believe that this account misrepresents Sequoyah's Cherokee identity by tying him to white relatives for whom there is no historical warrant. We argue that the Red Bird River Shelter is a significant precontact petroglyph site with several panels of line-and-groove petroglyphs overlain by numerous examples of modern graffiti, but there is no Sequoyan Syllabary inscription there.