Peruvian Viceroyalty Research Articles

Bodies to Reveal and Conceal: Baroque Dynamics of Obscenity (Heresy) and Modesty (Saintliness) in Feminine Bodies in the Peruvian Viceroyalty

Obscenity and modesty: at first glance, we recognise these terms a priori, as clear in their morality and limits. However, both concepts are ambiguous, porous, and paradoxical. Obscenity and modesty are complementary categories, and their definitions are circumstantial; that is, they depend on an interpretive framework as much as historical and textual context for substantiation. Using this brief reflection as a point of departure, the purpose of this work is to study the dynamics of the modest/obscene – framed by conceptualisations of saintliness and heresy – in the context of the Spanish colonies in America and using textualities associated with feminine spiritual devotion in the Peruvian Viceroyalty of the seventeenth century. To this end, two particularly resonant cases will be analysed: those of Saint Rose of Lima (1586–1617) and Ángela Carranza (1643–1694). This work’s hypothesis is that spiritual behaviours considered modest or obscene reveal themselves as paradoxical in the given context and that, despite initiatives by colonial powers to sustain the differences between the categories, many acts of feminine spiritual devotion become dislocated from their original modest context and intersect with elements of the obscene.

Una controversia en los Andes durante el siglo XVI: el pago de los diezmos por los indios

The controversy concerning the obligation of the Indians to tithe in the Peruvian viceroyalty is the subject of this article. This is a subject little explored in the colonial history of the Andes and, from the historiographical point of view, one of singular importance because it allows us to glimpse the tensions that existed within the clergy, the vacillations of the metropolitan colonial policy and the local interests in game; but also problematize the process of institutional construction of the Church in the sixteenth century.

Resource endowments and the problem of small change: insights from two American mints, 1600–1700

This article discusses historical evidence from the Potosi mint and Massachusetts Bay mint that illustrates the importance of the resource endowment (in this case silver) for the provision of small change. We show that the availability of silver was fundamental in shaping incentives. The relative scarcity of silver in Massachusetts Bay contributed to the small scale of the mint's operations, and implied that neither the monetary authority nor the mintmaster faced a significant tradeoff between drawing seigniorage from the mint and the production of small-denomination coins. In contrast, in the Viceroyalty of Peru, the abundance of silver, and the consequent large level of production of the mint's heavy peso coin, heightened the tradeoff between the fiscal and monetary objectives of the coinage. We suggest that these incentives negatively affected the production of fractionary coinage in the Peruvian viceroyalty, whereas in Massachusetts Bay the production of small-denomination coins was the norm.

Valdivia: Intercultural Relations along the Southern Frontier of the Spanish Empire in America during the Colonial Period (1552–1820)

This article presents a synthesis of regional archaeological investigations in the city and region of Valdivia during the colonial period (1550–1820). Previous studies have traditionally been centered on Hispanic mindsets and the role of conflict, the frontier status of colonial society in southern Chile, and the dispersed character of indigenous settlement. Here local sequences of material culture are reconsidered together with previous conceptual frameworks proposed by historical and anthropological research. Our research is based on new field surveys, the study of standing buildings, and assemblages of finds. These have been linked to different types of sites, including urban centers, fortifications, and mission posts. The results allow us to investigate the intercultural character of local society, settlement patterns, and the role of Valdivia in the context of the Peruvian viceroyalty and the Spanish Empire as a whole. Conclusions reveal the specific colonial processes that characterized the region and the sequence of founding, abandonment, and refounding of the urban center of Valdivia, which, in turn, impacted patterns of indigenous settlement and provoked technological hybridization in local ceramic industries. These changes can be linked to the emergence of an intercultural society, the definition of which proves more complex than that accepted by current binary categories.

El archivo indígena y el relato de su historia en los Andes.

El estudio desarrolla la hipótesis acerca de que durante los siglos de dominación colonial, los indios de los Andes fueron construyendo un archivo en el que guardaron la memoria de sus luchas y reclamos y con ella, crearon un relato sobre su situación en la monarquía católica y las expectativas o programa sobre sus pretensiones dentro de ella. El archivo se constituyó con los pedidos de mercedes, reclamos sobre cacicazgos, probanzas de linajes y servicios, memoriales de agravios, títulos de tierras, relaciones y cartas. De un universo muy amplio de documentos, que cubren distintas regiones del virreinato peruano, se establecieron correspondencias entre las gestiones y los discursos, los intercambios y la acumulación representativa de esa historia de lucha legal. Un caso desconocido y representativo, de Pedro Laureano de los Reyes sirve para ejemplificar la idea central. The study develops the hypothesis that during the centuries of colonial domination, the Indians of the Andes were building an archive in which they kept the memory of their struggles and claims and with it, they created a story about their situation in the Catholic monarchy and the expectations or program about his claims within it. The archive was created with requests for grants, claims on chiefdoms, evidence of lineages and services, memorials of grievances, land titles, relationships and letters. From a very wide universe of documents, covering different regions of the Peruvian viceroyalty, correspondences were established between the negotiations and speeches, exchanges and the representative accumulation of that history of legal struggle. An unknown and representative case, of Pedro Laureano de los Reyes serves to exemplify the central idea.

LAS REPERCUSIONES DEL SISTEMA DE CORTE EN LOS CORREGIMIENTOS DE INDIOS DEL PERÚ VIRREINAL (1565-1600)

The court was the political-social organization of the Hispanic Monarchy in the Modern Age. This model was based on the articulation of power through personal relationships. Thus, patronage networks by ties of friendship, kinship, peasantry and customs played a key role in granting mercedes of the monarch or prince to his servants. This allowed the integration of the kingdoms and their elites in the monarchy.In this sense, the article analyzes the aspects of the court system that had repercussion in the Andes of the Peruvian viceroyalty through the corregimientos of Indians. To this end, we examine the political qualities that the corregidor had as magistrate of the king, as well as the personal mediations that he established with his domestic servants, government ministers and indigenous elites. This will determine the common and different features that his environment had with the royal court.

La circulación del libro entre España y el virreinato del Perú a fines del siglo XVIII

El presente artículo estudia la circulación del libro entre España y el virreinato peruano a finales del siglo XVIII. A partir de una revisión sistemática, efectuada en el fondo Real Aduana del Archivo General de la Nación del Perú, analiza 48 cargamentos con libros que fueron importados de Cádiz al Callao entre 1779 y 1789, con el fin de ser vendidos en Lima y, en menor medida, en otras ciudades como Santiago de Chile, Cuzco y Guayaquil. El texto está dividido en dos secciones. En la primera, revisa el marco de la historia cultural del libro y la bibliografía existente, para concluir que, sin perjuicio de sus valiosos aportes, esta se ha centrado en los siglos XVI a XVII y no ha examinado los «registros de entrada» del Callao, sino únicamente los «registros de ida» conservados en el Archivo General de Indias. En la segunda sección se presenta una primera evaluación del corpus revisado, que confronta los datos obtenidos con la información ya conocida sobre el tráfico del libro hacia el Perú. Esto permite concluir, entre otras ideas de interés, que la época estudiada se caracteriza por una secularización del material bibliográfico —en gran medida por el incremento de los libros científicos—; la coexistencia de materiales tradicionales y modernos; la plena compenetración de los impresores españoles con el mercado virreinal —que recibía sus ediciones el mismo año en el que aparecían o poco después—; y la efectiva recepción de los libros importados por parte de los habitantes del virreinato.

Press and Identity: Indigenous People and Black People in Lima in the XIX Century (1811 - 1813)

This study discusses the discursive constructions of the Lima press in which the indigenous and Black people were presented and represented in the social space of the final period of the Peruvian viceroyalty. In this way, it relates them to the social facts that transcended the discourses in a context of social and political upheaval in which the construction of a greater identity, in this case, that of the Spanish nation presented by the creoles, tried to include and subordinate the social, racial and casta groups that were part of the Hispanic America.BR Three documents of this period are analyzed: volume I and II of the newspaper El Peruano (86 documents), published between 1811 and 1812; volume I of the Verdadero Peruano (31 documents), between 1812 and 1813; and the comments of the Peruvian representatives in the Cadiz Courts appeared in the Diaries of the Cadiz Courts from 1810 to 1813.

La tradición naturalista de algunos jesuitas en los Andes.

Humanists proposed to study the natural history of the New World, from his integrated conception of human beings, when they noticed there modes so different from humanity with regard to the Old World. But not many humanists were personally to the New World, being replaced by the illustrated class displaced there because of the missionary commitments of the Spanish monarchy: i.e., the missionaries. These included the Jesuits by its birth more modern and secular, humanistic teaching methods and his project centralized, well informed, and reported for the «indiana» Christianization. We consider the long history of American naturalist knowledge of the Jesuits, mediators between Renaissance humanism and the later Enlightenment, by selecting some representative persomalities in the Peruvian Viceroyalty, connected with the work by Josef de Acosta.

Los Júbilos de Lima (1755), del marqués de Sotoflorido: el quiebre del paradigma

En 1755 a propósito de la inauguración de una sección de la Catedral de Lima restaurada después del terremoto de 1746, el virrey José Manso de Velasco, conde de Superunda, le encargó a Francisco Antonio Ruiz Cano y Galeano, marqués de Sotoflorido, una relación que constituye una propuesta pionera de las ideas ilustradas en la primera mitad del siglo XVIII virreinal peruano.

Indian hospitals and government in the colonial Andes.

This article examines the reception of the early modern hospital among the indigenous people of the Andes under Spanish colonial rule. During the period covered by this study (sixteenth to mid-eighteenth centuries), the hospital was conceived primarily as a manifestation of the sovereign’s paternalistic concern for his subjects’ spiritual well being. Hospitals in the Spanish American colonies were organised along racial lines, and those catering to Indians were meant to complement the missionary endeavour. Besides establishing hospitals in the main urban centres, Spanish colonial legislation instituted hospitals for Indians in provincial towns and in small rural jurisdictions throughout the Peruvian viceroyalty. Indian hospitals often met with the suspicion and even hostility of their supposed beneficiaries, especially indigenous rulers. By conceptualising the Indian hospital as a tool of colonial government, this article investigates the reasons behind its negative reception, the work of adaptation that allowed a few of them to thrive, and the eventual failure of most of these institutions.

Análisis bibliométrico de los impresos peruanos relacionados a temas médicos publicados durante el Perú Virreinal (Siglos XVI-XIX)

Objetivo: Cuantificar las características de los indicadores bibliométricos de los impresos relacionados a temas médicos publicados durante el Perú Virreinal (1585-1821). Diseño: Estudio descriptivo, longitudinal y retrospectivo. Material y métodos: En 550 impresos se evalúa los siguientes indicadores: título, año de publicación, autor, género documental, área temática, nacionalidad y profesión del autor, imprenta o impresor. Resultados: Se halló 550 impresos entre los años 1585-1821, encontrándose una mayor frecuencia de publicación entre los años 1780-1799, con 280 (51%) impresos. De 121 autores, Hipólito Unánue, con 72 (13,1%) publicaciones, fue el más prolífico. De 32 áreas temáticas, la climatología, con 110 (20%) impresos, fue la más recurrente. El género documental más empleado, con 192 (34,9%) publicaciones, fue el libro. Los médicos, con 243 (44,2%) impresos, tuvieron la mayor concentración de publicaciones. La mayoría de impresos, 513 (93,3%), fue publicada en castellano; 227 (41,3%) impresos fueron publicados por autores peruanos. Conclusiones: El Mercurio Peruano se constituyó -cuantitativamente- en la publicación de mayor producción de literatura médica del Perú virreinal. Entre quienes allí publicaban, Hipólito Unánue fue el más prolífico de los autores, siendo la climatología la materia de mayor interés en la comunidad médica virreinal.

Evangelización andina, educación y castellanización de los indígenas del común

En el virreinato del Perú, desde las primeras décadas de la Colonia, las diferentes órdenes religiosas que se encargaron de concretar la misión evangelizadora cumplieron una importante función respecto de la castellanización de los indígenas. En este artículo pretendemos sentar las bases de la castellanización de los indígenas del común del virreinato del Perú en manos de los misioneros de la Compañía de Jesús, una de las principales órdenes religiosas de esta región.

Pre-National Poetics of Belonging:Lima Fundada(1732)

Research Article| January 01 2013 Pre-National Poetics of Belonging: Lima Fundada (1732) A. Renee Gutiérrez A. Renee Gutiérrez Longwood University Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Calíope (2013) 18 (3): 59–84. https://doi.org/10.5325/caliope.18.3.0059 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Twitter Permissions Search Site Citation A. Renee Gutiérrez; Pre-National Poetics of Belonging: Lima Fundada (1732). Calíope 1 January 2013; 18 (3): 59–84. doi: https://doi.org/10.5325/caliope.18.3.0059 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All Scholarly Publishing CollectivePenn State University PressCalíope Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright © 2013 The Pennsylvania State University2013The Pennsylvania State University Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Indígenas andinos en Chile Colonial: Inmigración, inserción espacial, integración económica y movilidad social (Santiago, Siglos XVI-XVII)

Beginning with the 16th century conquering expeditions, many Andean natives who served the Spaniards arrived in Chile, where they settled in and integrated in the work and social areas of this outlying «New World»; they formed local networks and relationships, had offspring; a number of them became artisans and some drafted wills or left their mark in ecclesiastical or notarized documents that provide us with an idea of their mobility and local integration. This work offers a background and reveals the principle hubs of a process resembling a medullar structure, in order to understand how the early Chilean colonial society was made up. At the same time, it provides insights into the phenomena of movement, uprooting and settlement of the indigenous population in the southern Peruvian viceroyalty.

Mencionar y tratar el cuerpo : indígenas, mujeres y categorías jurídicas. Violencias del orden hispano colonial, Virreinato del Perú, s. XVII-XVIII

Dans cet article, nous analysons le corps comme objet historiographique dans differents contextes hispano coloniaux : Cajamarca, Perou, 17eme siecle, et Santiago du Chili, 18eme siecle. Sans sous-estimer les singularites locales, nous portons notre attention sur le fait que les corps des femmes et des Indiens sont l’objet d’une forte prise en charge par les mecanismes de l’ordre. En examinant la mise en œuvre des categories juridiques liant la personne et son corps, nous visons a souligner l’usage qui en est fait dans la construction des identites feminines, indigenes et metisses. A travers l’analyse de proces intentes par des femmes et des Indiens, nous interrogeons differentes manieres de « mentionner et traiter » le corps, qu’il soit pure matiere ou vivant et le degre de violence decoulant des definitions et limites du systeme juridique.

The Souls of Purgatory: The Spiritual Diary of a Seventeenth-Century Afro-Peruvian Mystic, Ursula de Jesús (review)

Reviewed by: The Souls of Purgatory: The Spiritual Diary of a Seventeenth-Century Afro-Peruvian Mystic, Ursula de Jesús Gabriela Ramos The Souls of Purgatory: The Spiritual Diary of a Seventeenth-Century Afro- Peruvian Mystic, Ursula de Jesús. Translated, edited, and with an introduction by Nancy E. van Deusen. [Diálogos.] (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 2004. Pp. x, 221. $45.00 clothbound, ISBN 978-0-826-32827-4; $24.95 paperback, ISBN 978-0-826-32828-1.) This book centers on the life of Ursula de Jesús, a woman of African descent who lived in Lima, the capital of the Peruvian viceroyalty, during the first half of the seventeenth century. At the time, men and women of African descent, either slave or free, constituted the majority of the city’s population. In spite of their number, they have left few personal testimonies. Although Ursula’s experience was not unique in a city and at a time that produced the first Spanish American saints and several mystics, it is exceptional that a woman of her background left a diary in which she related her spiritual journey. Historian Nancy van Deusen has made a laudable effort in writing an informed introductory study, and translating and editing a rich and difficult manuscript. Ursula lived several years as a donada (religious servant) in Lima’s convent of St. Clare. Her condition as slave notwithstanding, her confessors advised her thoughts and mystical visions were worth recording, therefore this piece is to a great extent an oral text, an aspect that enhances its interest and value for historians and scholars in other disciplines. The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 offers an introduction to Ursula as an individual and explains the environment in which the diary was composed. Part 2 contains the English translation of the diary, and part 3 contains a selection of passages from the diary in Spanish. In the introduction, van Deusen describes Lima as well as its institutions and activities as Ursula could have experienced them throughout different stages in her life. Although a slave, Ursula chose to live in the convent, as she was convinced that her mission was to act as intercessor for the souls that were in purgatory awaiting their passage to heaven. She dedicated her prayers, hard work, and sacrifices to that endeavor. Through a detailed examination of Ursula’s diary, van Deusen furnishes a well-documented discussion of the meaning of purgatory—a central and not always well-understood aspect of Catholic belief and religious practice at the time—demonstrating how knowledgeable women such as Ursula reflected the religious ideas and traditions that had evolved in Europe, especially about the hereafter and salvation, since long before the Counter-Reformation. The observations of how Ursula lived the reality of racism in her everyday life and rebelled against it are quite perceptive, [End Page 186] showing how women like Ursula dealt with the inconsistencies between the strict hierarchies and prejudices that ruled colonial society and a religion that preached that souls were equal and salvation was for all. Preachers addressing the Indian inhabitants of Lima and Indians themselves grappled with this question. Although van Deusen has well examined the connections between Ursula’s religious ideas and those of European and Mexican mystics, the side of the story related to local issues awaits further exploration. Gabriela Ramos Newnham College, University of Cambridge Copyright © 2009 The Catholic University of America Press

Bourbon Intervention in the Peruvian Tobacco Industry, 1752–1813

AbstractDuring the second half of the eighteenth century the Spanish Crown monopolised the tobacco industry in its American colonies, creating vertically integrated organisations which included factories for the production of cigars and cigarettes. A detailed analysis of the regulations, organisation and policies applied during the Peruvian viceroyalty suggests that Bourbon officials were effective managers. The monopoly was successful at curbing contraband and extracting rents. The evolution of monopoly policies, however, reflected political constraints on the Crown's efforts to raise revenues. The archival evidence suggests that Bourbon officials closed the tobacco factories in Peru in 1791 as a result of public opposition.

«Concordias medicinales de entrambos mundos»: el proyecto sobre materia médica peruana de Matías de Porres (fl. 1621)

This article studies the life and work of Matias de Porres, Castilian medical doctor practising in Lima during the first decades of the 17th Century. His figure allows to analyze the sanitary structure of the Peruvian Viceroyalty as well as the transference of Castilian patterns to America, on the basis of original sources found in the Seville General Archives. Furthermore, Porres was the publisher of the first Peruvian medical project appeared in the Lima press (/Brief warnings to drink cold by means of snow/, Lima, 1621).

Si tal era el dedo, cual seria el cuerpo!: The Archival Project of Sor Maria Josefa de la Santisima Trinidad (1783)

Since the arrival of the Spaniards to the New World, religion became an instrument of political expansion, social control and identity construction.1 Literary critics and cultural historians have emphasized the political and social significance of the convents in colonial Spanish America and their vital role in economic activities and social services. Their social function and political significance was achieved thanks to the work of many religious women who as founders, directors or practitioners established a close connection between the outside/secular world and the inside/spiritual world of the convent. As Electa Arenal and Stacey Schlau have indicated, By choosing chastity, religious women expanded their opportunities in a society as a whole, acting as teachers, protectors, creators, and healers (297). Nuns definitely also had to depend on the outside world in order to keep their institutions alive. Dowries and contributions became two of the most needed sources of economic stability, especially in small convents with lesser means.2 As Kathryn Burns aptly states, for nuns spiritual and economic goals were inextricably (208).This essay approaches the convent precisely as a national and social institution deeply connected to the political outside world. I specifically examine the efforts made by a particular nun to write the forgotten history of her convent in order to preserve a glorious past and to produce a written account that could serve as a guide for future generations. My study focuses on the religious chronicle compiled and edited by the Peruvian nun Maria Josefa de la Santisima Trinidad in 1783 entitled, Historia de lu Fundacion del Monasterio de Trinitarias Descalzas de Lima. I first offer a historical overview of the political and economic situation faced by Peruvian convents during the eighteenth century in order to understand why nuns such as Sor Maria Josefa felt the need to project their convents as crucial institutions in the process of educating new Peruvian generations. The second part of the essay is devoted to the analysis of Maria Josefa's chronicle-especially her introduction-and the forging of her text as a cultural patrimony and written evidence of the religious heroic virtues that characterized the lives of many of the nuns who inhabited the convent of Trinitarias Descalzas. I underscore that at a time when many convents were facing a period of crisis and decay, the urgency to document the history of a convent became a crucial tool to justify the still important need for the existence of the convent as a religious and social institution. The archival endeavor of Maria Josefa de la Trinidad went hand-in-hand with the articulation of a local sense of national identity that could serve as an exemplary religious model to be followed by future generations as well as a testimonial of Peru's religious prestige. Sor Maria Josefa's project was anchored in what I call a religious patriotism; a type of discourse that claimed a love of one's country on the basis of religious principles. In sum, for this nun, the reconstruction of a glorious past turned into a process of representation of a religious institution in search of social recognition and cultural visibility.Religious Reforms and Their Impact on Peruvian ConventsIn 1565, as a result of decrees issued by Philip II, the religious authorities of the Viceroyalty of Peru summoned the first Concilia limeno with the purpose of adapting the decrees of the Council of Trent to their social reality. In 1568, the Concilia Provincial established 132 decrees which aimed to regulate religious life in the Peruvian viceroyalty. The sixteenth-century Peruvian mandates established by the four councils (1565, 1566, 1567, and 1583) survived until the eighteenth century,3 when the deterioration of religious institutions prompted Charles III to call for new Concilios provinciales in 1769.4Continuous denunciations by religious authorities to the King, with regard to the lack of discipline observed in many of the nunneries, constituted a major reason why the Peruvian councils were ordered. …