Peruvian Amazon Research Articles

Assembling Differences

In the Peruvian Amazon’s lower Marañón basin, the prospect of an indigenous assembly appears unlikely: how can previously semi-nomadic groups, historically immersed in recurrent warfare, come together in a cohesive political entity? This transformation is undoubtedly a product of historical processes, greatly influenced by Western political structures and legal frameworks. However, does this shift erase the traditional conflicts among Amazonian groups? The criteria defining indigenous identity and collective action still bear traces of past hostilities, albeit reshaped by indigenous political dynamics. This article draws from the ethnography of a federation assembly to delve into the nuances between fragmentation and unity. Through the lens of assembly issues, it seeks to uncover both the ruptures and continuities defining contemporary indigenous communities.

Creating near real-time alerts of illegal gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon using Synthetic Aperture Radar

Abstract Peru’s Southeastern Amazon deforestation trends can be attributed to alluvial gold mining. Illegal mining occurring in forestry concessions, national parks, and the territories of Indigenous People Organizations is of particular concern. We present a methodology to create near real-time alerts of deforestation caused by alluvial gold mining. A time series of Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data from February to December 2022 is created in Google Earth Engine (GEE) and assessed using Morton Canty’s Omnibus Q-test change detection algorithm. Resulting detections are validated with high-resolution optical imagery from Planet NICFI’s monthly basemaps and Planet Scope daily imagery. The alerts identify the location and timing of large areas (group pixels of <1 ha) of forest loss due to gold mining activities within buffer zones of indigenous territories and protected areas. The overall accuracy of the forest loss analysis conducted with this change detection method was 99.98%, based on an independent accuracy assessment. This effort has resulted in a public web platform that displays the location of near real time alerts, so Peruvian enforcement agencies can more effectively allocate resources and staff to addressing active illegal mining operations. These results demonstrate the applicability of open-source SAR data to monitor forest loss over areas where cloud cover is more persistent and to improve tools that deliver timely, critical information to decision-makers. Future applications of our method could expand this approach to other drivers of deforestation.

Functional insights of novel Bathyarchaeia reveal metabolic versatility in their role in peatlands of the Peruvian Amazon.

With the expansion of the Candidatus Paludivitaceae family by the assembly of 28 new metagenome assembled genomes, this study provides novel insights into their metabolic diversity and ecological significance in peatland ecosystems. From a comprehensive phylogenic and functional analysis, we have elucidated their putative unique facultative anaerobic capabilities and CO detoxification potential. This research highlights their crucial role in carbon cycling and greenhouse gas regulation. These findings are essential for resolving the microbial processes affecting peat soil stability, offering new perspectives on the ecological roles of previously underexplored and underrepresented archaeal populations.

Epstein-Barr Virus in the RIVERA Case-Control Study of Acute Febrile Illness: Acute Mononucleosis Nearly Absent as an Etiology in the Peruvian Amazon.

Large diagnostic panels allow for pathogens with high or low likelihood of causing attributable illness to be tested simultaneously. Infectious mononucleosis (IM) due to primary infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a common cause of acute febrile illness (AFI) in case series from high-income countries, though its contribution to AFI in tropical low-income settings is unclear. As part of a case-control study using multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) diagnostics, we set out to determine if primary EBV infection was an underrecognized cause of AFI in the Peruvian Amazon. Presence of EBV DNA in whole-blood samples was equally prevalent among febrile cases and afebrile controls (34.6% [247/714] versus 35.7% [248/695]) and was not correlated with classic IM symptoms. Given the clear lack of clinical significance of the whole-blood PCR results, additional testing was pursued to ascertain the true prevalence of IM among cases of AFI in this population. The presence of EBV DNA in plasma, a marker of active EBV-related processes, was detected in 7% (5/68). Anti-EBNA-1 IgG, a late marker of prior infection, was tested via ELISA and detected in 4/5 of the plasma-positive patients, thereby excluding an acute primary EBV infection in all but one patient. Infectious mononucleosis due to primary infection with EBV was not an important etiology of AFI in the Peruvian Amazon, despite high rates of initial test positivity.

Use of CLEANED to Assess the Productive, Environmental, and Economic Impact of Dairy Farms in the Peruvian Amazon

Dairy farms in developing countries are key to fighting hunger and poverty. However, their environmental and economic impact in the tropical region of Peru has been scarcely studied. The CLEANED tool, developed by the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, allows us to assess the productive situation and the environmental and economic impact of different dairy systems. The objective of the study was to use the CLEANED tool to evaluate the production, environmental, and economic impacts of extensive and semi-intensive dairy systems in the tropical region of Peru. Data from twelve dairy farms (six extensive and six semi-intensive systems), in two seasons (rainy and dry) were recorded using semi-structured surveys. The required area (ha/year), production (L milk/ha/year), environmental impact (water use in m3/product), and methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in kg CO2eq/kg fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM) were estimated, and the economic analysis was performed for each livestock system. Results showed that the required area was of 28.9 and 32.6 ha, milk yield was 382 and 1254 L/ha/year, water use was 0.59 and 0.29 m3/kg FPCM, CH4 emissions were 1.7 and 1.0 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM, and N2O emissions were 0.22 and 0.17 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM, for the extensive and semi-intensive systems, respectively. The study revealed significant positive differences in semi-intensive livestock systems, including increased productivity, the reduced intensity of CH4 and N2O emissions, and greater profitability.

Trends in Urban Wild Meat Trade of Chelonians (Turtles and Tortoises) in the Peruvian Amazon

Culturally, chelonians are important sources of nutrition and income for rural and urban people in tropical rainforests, but urban trade can cause declines in wild populations. This study analyses the urban chelonian trade and its trends to better understand the impact on free-living populations in the Northern Peruvian Amazon. We studied the urban trade of wild chelonians by conducting 526 days of participant observation and structured questionnaires with the main chelonian vendors in the wet markets of Iquitos between 2006 and 2018. The trade of chelonians decreased by −161.6%, from 22,694 individuals in 2006/07 to 8657 individuals in 2017/18. Chelonoidis denticulatus was the species sold the most (86.3%), followed by Podocnemis unifilis (13.6%). Podocnemis expansa was only sold in 2006/07. River turtle sales increased in the dry season, while sales of Chelonoidis denticulatus decreased. Turtles were the most expensive meat sold in urban markets: 49.7% more expensive than the most frequently consumed fish, Prochilodus nigricans, and 48.4% more expensive than poultry. Turtles represented only 0.19% (SD 0.23) of the index of domestic meat and fish consumption per capita. River turtle eggs are sold by a different set of vendors, and in 2017/18, 570,229 eggs were traded in the market of Belén in Iquitos, equivalent to an approximate lay of 10,418 P. unifilis and 1178 P. expansa females. The high magnitude of the trade of river turtle eggs together with the reduction in their meat trade suggests a prioritization of egg sales, which should improve the conservation of adults, since meat sales can be detrimental to chelonian populations.

Three new species of Jainus (Monogenoidea: Dactylogyridae) from the gills of Triportheus angulatus (Characiformes: Triportheidae) collected in the Peruvian Amazonia.

Three new species of Jainus Mizelle, Kritzky & Crane, 1968, are described parasitizing the gill filaments of Triportheus angulatus (Spix & Agassiz) (Characiformes: Triportheidae), an omnivorous fish endemic to the Amazon River basin. Jainus iquitensis n. sp. is characterized by the morphology of the vagina, which is bell-shaped, with a canal as a sclerotized tube and the morphology of hook pair VII, which in the new species presents an inflated base, a characteristic not observed in other congeners. Jainus loretoensis n. sp. is unique among Jainus species due to the morphology of its Y-shaped ventral anchors, with an arrow-shaped superficial root and a finger-shaped deep root. Jainus sardinae n. sp. is characterized by presenting a slender, small J-shaped tube with a sigmoid accessory piece and a ventral anchor that is Y-shaped, with inconspicuous finger-shaped deep root and superficial root with rounded ending with a chin-shaped projection. These findings add three new species to the previously reported two Jainus species from Peru.

Recurrence patterns and evolution of submicroscopic and asymptomatic Plasmodium vivax infections in malaria-endemic areas of the Peruvian Amazon.

In the Peruvian Amazon, Plasmodium vivax malaria transmission is maintained due to the high frequency of recurrences. By understanding the recurrence rates of submicroscopic and asymptomatic cases, we can develop informed strategies to prevent transmission more efficiently and disrupt the silent transmission cycle. A three-year, population-based cohort study was conducted in two sites, Cahuide and Lupuna, within the Loreto region in Peru from 2013 to 2015. The study included 385 individuals and aimed to examine the temporal dynamics of malaria recurrences and their impact on transmission and control. Individuals from Lupuna presented a higher risk of P. vivax infections compared to Cahuide, where most recurrences were asymptomatic and submicroscopic. It is estimated that a great proportion of these recurrences were due to relapses in both communities. The application of molecular diagnostic method proved to be significantly more effective, detecting 2.3 times more episodes during the follow-up (PCR, 1068; microscopy, 467). PCR identified recurrences significantly earlier, at 151 days after an initial infection, compared to microscopy, which detected them on average after 365 days. Community, occupation and previous malaria infections were factors associated with recurrences. Finally, potential infection evolution scenarios were described where one frequent scenario involved the transition from symptomatic to asymptomatic infections with a mean evolution time of 240 days. This study explores the contrast in malaria recurrence risk among individuals from two endemic settings, a consequence of prolonged exposure to the parasite. Through the analysis of the evolution scenarios of P. vivax recurrences, it is possible to have a more complete vision of how the transmission pattern changes over time and is conditioned by different factors.

Indigenous Peoples and Social Protection: The Case of the Peruvian Amazon

The persistence of indigenous poverty and exclusion is one of the main challenges for social policy in Latin America. Social protection programmes, in particular conditional cash transfers, have been among the main instruments used by governments over the past two decades to respond to the high incidence of poverty in indigenous contexts. The inclusion of indigenous peoples as social protection beneficiaries remains a largely unexplored topic, despite its relevance to understand social policy trajectories in the global South. This article discusses the expansion of poverty alleviation social programmes in the Peruvian Amazon. Although the expansion of these programmes increased the state’s capacity to deliver welfare services in historically excluded areas, it also revealed the limitations of existing social protection instruments to effectively respond to indigenous poverty and vulnerability. Addressing this challenge constitutes a key opportunity to promote transformative approaches in social protection systems in Latin America.

Endoparasite survey in Amazonian manatees (Trichechus inunguis) under rehabilitation in the Peruvian Amazon

Manatee populations are declining worldwide, and all currently existing species are considered vulnerable by the IUCN. The most common problems during nurturing young Amazonian manatees, Trichechus inunguis, in rescue centres are of gastrointestinal nature leading to inappetence, diarrhoea, cachexia and even death. Endoparasites play an important role in the well-being of wildlife in captivity as well as in the wild, though information about relevant protozoan and metazoan endoparasites in Amazonian manatees is still scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to find endoparasites in T. inunguis by analyzing faecal samples from 23 Amazonian manatees which were kept in rescue centres in the Peruvian Amazon. The samples were screened for protozoan and metazoan parasites using coproscopical analysis and molecular tools. Out of twenty juvenile animals eleven were positive for at least one Eimeriidae. Two morphologically different, not yet genetically described Eimeria species were identified. One of them seems to be Eimeria trichechi which has only been described once in 1984 in Amazonian manatees from Brazil. It was not found to lead to clinical symptoms of coccidiosis in this study. The second, Eimeria sp. Type B was associated with clinical coccidiosis in a young Amazonian manatee, which showed gastrointestinal symptoms including diarrhoea, inappetence and cachexia. No other protozoan or metazoan parasite were detected in any of the samples. The present study is the first to investigate endoparasites in Amazonian manatees using molecular tools and is the first to identify an Eimeria species that could be associated with clinical symptoms in T. inunguis. With information from our study rescue centres can improve monitoring of parasites more effectively to reduce morbidity and mortality rates among rehabilitated manatees as well as improve the health status and fitness of animals for a successful release back into the wild.

Development and Application of Microsatellite Markers for Genetic Diversity Assessment and Construction of a Core Collection of Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh Germplasm from the Peruvian Amazon

The Amazonian shrub Myrciaria dubia (camu-camu) produces vitamin C-rich fruits of growing commercial interest. However, sustainable utilization requires assessment and protection of the genetic diversity of the available germplasm. This study aimed to develop and apply microsatellite markers to assess genetic diversity and construct a core collection of M. dubia germplasm from the Peruvian Amazon. Sixteen polymorphic microsatellite loci were developed using an enrichment approach. The evaluation of 336 genotypes from 43 accessions of the germplasm bank, originating from eight river basins, was conducted using these newly developed markers. Genetic diversity parameters, including observed and expected heterozygosity, were calculated. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed to assess the distribution of genetic variation within and among accessions and river basins. Bayesian clustering analysis was employed to infer population structure. A core collection was constructed to maximize allelic richness. High genetic diversity was observed, with heterozygosity values ranging from 0.468 to 0.644 (observed) and 0.684 to 0.817 (expected) at the river basin level. AMOVA indicated significant genetic variation within (73–86%) compared to among (14–27%) accessions and river basins. Bayesian clustering detected ten genetic clusters, with several degrees of admixture among river basins, except for the genetically homogeneous Putumayo River basin. A core collection comprising 84 plant genotypes (25% of the full collection) was established, representing 90.82% of the overall allelic diversity. These results have important implications for M. dubia conservation strategies and breeding programs, in demonstrating a need for genetic connectivity between populations but preserving unique genetic resources in isolated basins. These results validate the expected levels of diversity and population subdivision in a crop and stress the need to secure genetically diverse germplasms, underscoring the importance of thorough genetic characterization for ex situ germplasm management.

Wildlife trade at Belén and Modelo market, Peru: defining a baseline for conservation monitoring

IntroductionDomestic wildlife markets have important nutritional, medicinal, cultural, and financial significance for local communities, but the scale and diversity of wildlife trade that passes through them is also associated with negative impacts on biodiversity, poor animal welfare, and potential human health risk. To design, and monitor the effectiveness of, interventions to ameliorate such impacts, an understanding of the species sold at the markets and their purpose is required, together with a robust (and potentially flexible) baseline. Here we focus on Belén (the largest open wildlife market in the Peruvian Amazon) and Modelo market, in Iquitos, Peru.MethodsWe surveyed wildlife products for sale at both markets approximately weekly over a year, using two different survey methods (open and discreet). To provide a baseline to support future conservation monitoring, we estimated a number of different market metrics (including indices of product availability, volume (observed per survey), and price), for the most frequently observed species ‘groups’, and compared indices of trade volume with daily river water levels. To provide a complete understanding of the range of species involved, we also described all threatened species recorded at the markets, the products sold, and their uses, including those that were only observed occasionally.ResultsBoth markets sold predominantly wild meat, and some pets; at Belén Market >30% observations were of decorative, spiritual, or medicinal products. At least 71 unique species (including mammals, reptiles, birds, and invertebrates) were observed in total. The most frequently observed species ‘groups’ were: lowland paca, peccaries, caiman, river turtles, boas, yellow footed tortoise, parrots, and brocket deer. 27.7% of species were threatened or Near Threatened globally or nationally but there was no evidence that discreet surveys increased their detection. Daily river water levels were positively correlated with indices of trade volume for lowland paca, caiman, and yellow-footed tortoise, and negatively correlated with indices of trade volume for parrots and river turtle eggs.DiscussionBeyond providing a comparative dataset, and insights regarding the apparent availability and value of a diversity of products (including food items, live pets, and other decorative, spiritual, and medicinal items), we suggest that simulations using these data could be used to optimize future monitoring efforts. Finally, our observations of correlations of per survey trade volumes of some species with daily river water levels in Iquitos may inform optimal time of year for species- specific surveys.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding malaria transmission and prevention in an indigenous Maijuna community: a qualitative study in the Peruvian Amazon

BackgroundPeru is a low-endemic transmission area for malaria, where the majority (84%) of incident malaria cases are localized to the department of Loreto, which is composed of several geographically isolated rural communities. Recent intervention efforts targeting at-risk Indigenous populations that live in riverine communities in Loreto place emphasis on preventive behaviours to decrease transmission. However, malaria related behaviour change is often dependent upon local knowledge, beliefs, and practices, especially in areas where malaria is viewed an embedded and unavoidable aspect of life.MethodsThis exploratory case study used semi-structured interviews conducted in Spanish between February and March of 2019 to examine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to malaria prevention among the Indigenous Maijuna people of Sucusari, Loreto, Peru. Participants who consented were also administered a rapid diagnostic test (RDT) upon the time of interview.ResultsA total of 33 community members were interviewed, and 31 were tested via malaria rapid diagnostic tests, with RDT filter paper subsequently tested using PCR. All test results were negative for malaria. Themes that emerged included: varying knowledge of methods to prevent malaria, reports of observed changes in malaria incidence over time, confusion surrounding malaria transmission, treatment-seeking as a common behaviour, the belief that medications are effective, and the acceptance of bed nets which were viewed as a lifestyle norm.ConclusionThese shared narratives should be used as a foundation for further studies and health interventions among communities in the Peruvian Amazon with limited access to health services where culturally resonant, community-based health programming is essential to improving health. Takeaways regarding confusion surrounding malaria transmission should also be considered.

Wild-grown medicinal plants used by the Asháninka people from the Tambo River, Peruvian Amazonia

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe Asháninka people are the largest Peruvian Amazonian group, yet the knowledge of their medicinal plants is scarce. This study on Asháninka herbal medicine offers an insight into the Asháninka aetiological system, resting within the wider ontological framework of animism, and cultural expressions of the biomedical understanding of illnesses. Aim of the studyTo document wild-grown (non-cultivated) plant species in current use by the Asháninka people and look closer at their herbal practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. The study examines whether the knowledge and use of medicinal plants is gendered in this society. It also compares the findings with available literature concerning the Arawakan groups from Peruvian Amazonia. Material and methodsThe fieldwork was conducted in 13 native communities of the Asháninka people along the Tambo River (Selva Central), Peru, between 2016 and 2018 and in 2022. The main field technique were guided walks in the forest with 27 female and 28 male participants, during which voucher specimens were collected and relevant information was recorded. Semi-structured interviews were performed with specialists in Asháninka traditional medicine and with lay Asháninka people to better understand Asháninka illness aetiologies. The analysis of medicinal plants included medicinal categories and uses, modes of preparations, the frequency of use and the knowledge about the plants between the genders. It also presents and discusses detailed testimonies of herbal remedies during the Covid-19 pandemic. The list of recorded plants was compared with ethnobotanical studies of other Arawakan groups from Peruvian Amazonia. ResultsAltogether, 169 wild-grown medicinal plant species were documented. Our findings highlight the importance of the Piperaceae and Acanthaceae botanical families in the Asháninka pharmacopoeia. The plants were used for 23 medicinal categories, of which dermatological disorders, digestive problems and venomous bites were the most prevalent. Over 70% of recorded plants were commonly and moderately known by the study participants. More exclusive species were found among the men than women; however, 64 % of all recorded plants were known to both genders. Sixty-one percent of recorded plants were not mentioned by any other study of medicinal plants among other Arawakan groups in Peruvian Amazonia. During the Covid-19 pandemic, nobody in the native communities at the Tambo River died directly due to the virus, which was attributed, amongst others, to effective and culturally-appropriate prophylaxis and treatments with medicinal plants. ConclusionTo this day, the Asháninka people at the Tambo River conserve the knowledge and practices related to medicinal plants which meet the daily needs of dwelling in subtropical forest; these are deeply rooted in animistic ontology, with the emphasis on spirit predation and retaliation. And yet, numerous applications of plants are compatible with the biomedical notion of illness and symptoms. Plant knowledge is shared between the genders, although specific plants exist for men and women, which are related to their gendered social and family roles. Some overlap and consensus exists with other studies regarding medicinal uses, which reflects the rich and diverse knowledge of medicinal plants among the Arawakan groups in Peruvian Amazonia, and this deserves further study.

Healing with Ayahuasca the Plant Teacher: Psychedelic Metaphoricity and Polyontologies

ABSTRACT Shamans, neo-shamans, atheists, and others describe gaining special knowledge from drinking ayahuasca, supporting the cross-cultural idea of ayahuasca as a plant teacher. While secular enthusiasts interpret this metaphorically, animists and others take it literally. This article examines ontological collisions at a healing retreat in the Peruvian Amazon, considering Shipibo shamans and their international clients. It explores how embodied experiences, such as purging and visions, inform both literal and metaphorical views of healing and illness. By addressing incommensurable ontologies, the article highlights how a polyontological framework approaches ontological collision without necessarily privileging specific ways of knowing.

Traditional Indigenous-Amazonian Therapy Involving Ceremonial Tobacco Drinking as Medicine: A Transdisciplinary Multi-Epistemic Observational Study.

Although the tobacco plant has been employed as a medicinal and sacred herb by Indigenous cultures across the Americas, its usage drastically changed after the 15th-century colonial arrival; its large-scale commodification and global marketing once brought to Europe lead to hedonic and addictive uses harmful to health. As a consequence, tobacco smoking is now one of the largest public health problems worldwide. However, in the Peruvian Amazon, a region of origin of tobacco species, Indigenous healers still know how to use the plant for therapeutic purposes. Due to a general disregard of Indigenous knowledge and stigma, these uses have however not so far been clinically investigated. We hence conducted for the first time a clinical field study assessing a sample of patients treated by a traditional healer specialized in tobacco in the Peruvian Amazon (observational design, pilot study, N = 27). The study was conducted within a transdisciplinary and multi-epistemic medical frame, in close partnership with an Amazonian healer. We used validated self-report scales to quantitatively assess mental health variables before and after the weeklong treatment, and mixed-methods to report experienced effects. Paired-samples t-tests comparing pre- and post-treatment scores revealed significant reductions in anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and general symptom indicators. Experienced effects included initial physical discomfort, followed by psychologically or existentially/spiritually significant insights. Our findings point to a sophisticated therapeutic approach based on Indigenous knowledge of tobacco applications, which should be further investigated. The study also contributes to the burgeoning scientific field on therapeutic uses of contentious psychoactive plants.

Autonomous Inflow Control Valves Enable Better Water Control in Peru Oil Field

_ This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 218074, “Making Better Wells With Autonomous Inflow Control Valves for Water Control in the Flank of the Bretaña Norte Oil Field, Peru: A Case Study,” by Willy Garcia, SPE, J. Antonio Zegarra, SPE, and Edwar Bustamante, PetroTal Peru, et al. The paper has not been peer reviewed. _ Bretaña Norte is a heavy oil greenfield in a remote area of northeast Peru. The field development strategy was designed around horizontal wells and advanced completions with autonomous inflow control devices (AICDs). As a part of a technology evaluation program, autonomous inflow-control-valve (AICV) technology was selected for field trials because of its ability to autonomously shut off water based on fluid properties. A reservoir simulation study was conducted, and the expected performance of AICV was compared with other AICD technologies installed in the field, indicating potential benefits related to better reservoir management. Field Description Bretaña Norte is an onshore field in the Peruvian Amazon. The Vivian formation is the main reservoir of the Bretaña Norte field and consists entirely of fluvial deposits composed of massive, moderately sorted, fluvial sandstones with thicknesses ranging from 40 to 200 ft. The Vivian formation is subdivided into Vivian S1 and Vivian S2, but only the Vivian S2 formation has been exploited to date. Heavy oil is produced from the Vivian S2 formation (18–19 °API and 25 cp), which features reservoir permeability ranging from 1 to 4 darcies. An active bottom aquifer of greater than 400-ft thickness was encountered under the60-ft oil column of the reservoir, posing a difficult production challenge to the operator: how to handle high volumes of water production that must be reinjected into a different formation. The Bretaña Norte field began production in 2018 with a few initial deviated wells with electrical submersible pumps (ESPs). The first horizontal well completed with standalone screens (SAS) experienced early water breakthrough. Thus, the operator opted for advanced completions with screens and AICDs in 2019. Between 2019 and 2023, 11 wells were completed with different AICD technologies. Even though initial results were positive, such outcomes have been highly dependent on the structural position of the wells. In 2022, a trial well was completed with the AICV technology in the flank of the reservoir, significantly closer to the oil/water contact (OWC), to evaluate its performance under challenging conditions. AICV Technology The AICV is an AICD designed to modify its open-flow area according to the properties (viscosity and density) of the fluids flowing through it and to choke flow progressively as water cut or gas-volume fraction values increase. The AICV is fully reversible, meaning that, if changes in the fluids flowing through the valve occur, it will reopen or reclose accordingly. The AICV consists of two flow paths, the main flow path and the pilot flow path, with an approximate flow distribution of 97 and 3%, respectively. Fig. 1 presents a schematic of the AICV, including a heat map showing the pressure distribution across the different flow paths.

Implications of tax avoidance and evasion on tax collection in the Peruvian Amazon

Implications of tax avoidance and evasion on tax collection in the Peruvian Amazon

Understanding the diversity of private conservation in the Peruvian Amazon

AbstractGlobal awareness about the threats of ecosystem degradation in the Amazon is growing. While state‐managed protected areas remain key instruments for forest conservation, private actors are increasingly funding and implementing a broad range of conservation initiatives. Private actors are transforming the Amazonian conservation landscape and its governance, however, many aspects of private conservation, especially the diversity of local practitioners and the challenges they face, remain understudied. Drawing on a case study of Madre de Dios in the Peruvian Amazon, we aim to generate a better understanding of private conservation practitioners and their various approaches to conservation on private and public land. We used an extensive review of literature and databases, in addition to 13 semi‐structured interviews with various private conservation practitioners, to map privately conserved areas, and to gather perceptions about challenges, opportunities, and future pathways for private conservation. A total of 590 privately conserved areas, covering over one million hectares, were identified and mapped in Madre de Dios. We find that, while most initiatives are managed by individuals and families, for‐profit companies manage half of the total area privately protected. Furthermore, we find that private conservation initiatives face significant barriers and pressures. These barriers include complex bureaucratic processes, legal contradictions and incoherencies, corruption, weak law enforcement, and financial insecurity. Conservation policies largely favor national and international actors and less so local, grassroots initiatives run by individuals and communities. Finally, we highlight the need for more accessible and inclusive policies that recognize the contribution of less powerful actors, to foster more effective conservation efforts for the future of the Amazon.

Sunning behavior of five Accipitridae species in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest

Sunning behavior of five Accipitridae species in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest