Perspective-taking Task Research Articles

The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex promotes self-control by inhibiting the egocentric perspective

The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) plays a crucial role in social cognitive functions, including perspective-taking. Although perspective-taking has been linked to self-control, the mechanism by which the dmPFC might facilitate self-control remains unclear. Using the multimodal neuroimaging dataset from the Human Connectome Project (Study 1, N =978 adults), we established a reliable association between the dmPFC and self-control, as measured by discounting rate—the tendency to prefer smaller, immediate rewards over larger, delayed ones. Experiments (Study 2, N = 36 adults) involving high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation showed that anodal stimulation of the dmPFC reduces the discounting of delayed rewards and decreases the congruency effect in egocentric but not allocentric perspective in the visual perspective-taking tasks. These findings suggest that the dmPFC promotes self-control by inhibiting the egocentric perspective, offering new insights into the neural underpinnings of self-control and perspective-taking, and opening new avenues for interventions targeting disorders characterized by impaired self-regulation.

You don’t understand me! But, I do! Awareness of cross-generational differences in collective remembering of national historic events

ABSTRACT Collective memories refer to a group’s shared representation of the past, which are slow to change over time. In this study, representative samples of American and German Younger Adults (YAs) and Older Adults (OAs) rated the emotional valence of 12 national historic events. Critically, both age groups were also asked to take on the perspective of the other: OAs imagined how YAs feel, whereas YAs imagined how OAs feel about the same events today. The results replicated previous findings that OAs and YAs hold differing opinions on numerous events. Both age groups successfully recognised these different collective perceptions between generations to some extent. Yet, OAs were more accurate in the perspective-taking task, with YAs consistently underestimating the intensity of OAs’ emotional valence. Self-reported perspective-taking strategies suggest that OAs relied more on stereotypes and considered education, while knowledge from specific people was universally used to rate the other age group’s perspective.

Embodied Cross-Modal Interactions Based on an Altercentric Reference Frame.

Accurate comprehension of others' thoughts and intentions is crucial for smooth social interactions, wherein understanding their perceptual experiences serves as a fundamental basis for this high-level social cognition. However, previous research has predominantly focused on the visual modality when investigating perceptual processing from others' perspectives, leaving the exploration of multisensory inputs during this process largely unexplored. By incorporating auditory stimuli into visual perspective-taking (VPT) tasks, we have designed a novel experimental paradigm in which the spatial correspondence between visual and auditory stimuli was limited to the altercentric rather than the egocentric reference frame. Overall, we found that when individuals engaged in explicit or implicit VPT to process visual stimuli from an avatar's viewpoint, the concomitantly presented auditory stimuli were also processed within this avatar-centered reference frame, revealing altercentric cross-modal interactions.

Emotion dysregulation modulates visual perspective taking and spontaneous facial mimicry.

Understanding and sharing others' emotions (i.e., empathy) requires the ability to manage one's own emotions (i.e., emotion regulation). Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that empathy and emotion regulation are related. This evidence is largely based on self-report measures of both constructs. The current study examined how task measures that assess processes related to empathy are associated with self-reported emotion dysregulation in a young adult sample. An eye-tracking-based perspective-taking task was used as a proxy measure of cognitive empathy. A spontaneous facial mimicry (SFM) task, wherein the activation of the Zygomaticus Major and the Corrugator Supercilii was measured during the passive viewing of happy and angry faces, was used as a proxy measure of affective empathy. The perspective-taking task metric showed a negative relationship with emotion dysregulation. The overall SFM metric was not significantly associated with emotion dysregulation. Follow-up analyses revealed that SFM for angry faces was inversely proportional to emotion dysregulation; no such relationship was observed for SFM for happy faces. These findings build upon prior work by demonstrating a positive relationship between adaptive emotion regulation and a behavioral measure of cognitive empathy. The findings for affective empathy are suggestive of a valence-specific relationship between SFM and emotion regulation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Recursive structures modulate the electrophysiological correlates of visual perspective taking.

An increasing number of studies have focused on the neural basis of complex mental inferences, which requires an understanding of the recursive nature of thought; however, the precise electrophysiological response to a recursive structure remains unclear. The present event-related potential (ERP) study investigated the recursive structure effect on the neural correlates of visual perspective taking by modifying a third-person visual perspective-taking task. Participants were required to determine how many dots in the presented scenes could be seen from the cued perspective, including the perspectives in the self, other, and recursive (one avatar's belief of another avatar) conditions. The ERP results showed that the N100 and P200 components specific to the recursive-perspective condition showed greater attentional allocation; the N200 component increased in the recursive condition and was related to the conflict process; and larger late slow waves were found in the other- and recursive-perspective conditions compared with those in the self-perspective condition, which reflected the decoupling mechanism. The results suggested that high-order perspective taking requires more attentional resources and conflict processing for further decoupling from the self-perspective.

Successful modulation of temporoparietal junction activity and stimulus-driven attention by fNIRS-based neurofeedback—A randomized controlled proof-of-concept study

Abstract The right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) is a core hub in neural networks associated with reorienting of attention and social cognition. However, it remains unknown whether participants can learn to actively modulate their rTPJ activity via neurofeedback. Here, we explored the feasibility of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)-based neurofeedback in modulating rTPJ activity and its effect on rTPJ functions such as reorienting of attention and visual perspective taking. In a bidirectional regulation control group design, 50 healthy participants were reinforced to either up- or downregulate rTPJ activation over 4 days of training. Both groups showed an increase in rTPJ activity right from the beginning of the training but only the upregulation group maintained this effect, while the downregulation group showed a decline from the initial rTPJ activation. This suggests a learning effect in the downregulation exclusively, making it challenging to draw definitive conclusions about the effectiveness of rTPJ upregulation training. However, we observed group-specific effects on the behavioral level. We found a significant group x time interaction effect in the performance of the reorienting of attention task and group-specific changes, with decreased reaction times (RTs) in the upregulation group and increased RTs in the downregulation group across all conditions after the neurofeedback training. Those with low baseline performance showed greater improvements. In the perspective-taking task, however, only time effects were observed that were non-group-specific. These findings demonstrate that fNIRS-based neurofeedback is a feasible method to modulate rTPJ functions with preliminary evidence of neurophysiologically specific effects, thus paving the way for future applications of non-invasive rTPJ modulation in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Measuring Spatial Abilities in Children: A Comparison of Mental-Rotation and Perspective-Taking Tasks.

Mental rotation (MR) and perspective taking (PT) are important spatial abilities and predictive of performance in other cognitive domains. Yet, age-appropriate measures to assess these spatial abilities in children are still rare. This study examined psychometric properties of four MR tasks in 6- to 9-year-olds (N = 96). Two were developed specifically for children and two were based on established assessments for adults; one of each was a computerized and one was a paper-pencil task. Furthermore, spatial perspective taking (PT)-a different but closely related ability-was assessed to determine discriminant validity. Factor analyses showed that all MR tasks loaded on one single factor, with PT only loading weakly on the same factor, suggesting high construct validity. The computerized task for adults showed moderate factor loadings, constituted its own (but correlated) factor when a two-factor solution was forced, and showed the lowest reliabilities, suggesting that it was very difficult for children. On average, the new MR tasks had good to excellent reliabilities, differentiated well between age groups, and proved to be well-suited to assess MR in this age range. The PT task also showed good reliability and a steep developmental progression. Relations to verbal skills, gaming experience, and TV consumption are discussed.

Deictic Framing Performance Fails to Generalize to Other Perspective-Taking Tasks

The behavioral processes underlying perspective taking have not been studied extensively. One approach to understanding and enhancing perspective taking, deictic framing, has been proposed. Proponents of this approach have suggested that deictic framing is a core property of perspective taking. A training protocol based on deictic framing has been developed and tested, but researchers generally evaluate the effectiveness of the protocol using tasks that have a similar format to the training protocol. Little research has examined the protocol’s effectiveness for improving performance in different perspective-taking tasks. We investigated generalization of the performance of three groups of university students trained with a deictic-framing protocol (or not) and tested with two other perspective-taking tasks: a visuospatial perspective taking using a cupboard containing a range of objects and a version of the implicit relational assessment procedure specifically designed to measure perspective taking. The first group was trained with the original verbal protocol with deictic expressions; the second group with the same protocol involving nondeictic words; and the third group was merely exposed to deictic expressions as a control condition. The results suggested that deictic framing is not fundamental to perspective taking, as the performance of the two experimental groups was not significantly different from the control group’s performance. Identification of specific stimulus functions involved in successful perspective taking and how those functions can be established should be addressed in future research.

Shared social groups or shared experiences? The effect of shared knowledge on children’s perspective-taking

Although the ability to consider others’ visual perspectives to interpret ambiguous communication emerges during childhood, people sometimes fail to attend to their partner’s perspective. Two studies investigated whether 4- to 6-year-olds show a “closeness–communication bias” in their consideration of a partner’s perspective in a communication task. Participants played a game that required them to take their partner’s visual perspective in order to interpret an ambiguous instruction. If children, like adults, perform worse when they overestimate the extent to which their perspective is aligned with that of a partner, then they should make more perspective-taking errors when interacting with a socially close partner compared with a more socially distant partner. In Study 1, social closeness was based on belonging to the same social group. In Study 2, social closeness was based on caregiving, a long-standing social relationship with a close kinship bond. Although social group membership did not affect children’s consideration of their partner’s perspective, children did make more perspective-taking errors when interacting with a close caregiver compared with a novel experimenter. These findings suggest that close personal relationships may be more likely to lead children to overestimate perspective alignment and hinder children’s perspective-taking than shared social group membership, and they highlight important questions about the mechanisms underlying the effects of partner characteristics in perspective-taking tasks.

Disability does not negatively impact linguistic visual-spatial processing for hearing adult learners of a signed language

The majority of adult learners of a signed language are hearing and have little to no experience with a signed language. Thus, they must simultaneously learn a specific language and how to communicate within the visual-gestural modality. Past studies have examined modality-unique drivers of acquisition within first and second signed language learners. In the former group, atypically developing signers have provided a unique axis—namely, disability—for analyzing the intersection of language, modality, and cognition. Here, we extend the question of how cognitive disabilities affect signed language acquisition to a novel audience: hearing, second language (L2) learners of a signed language. We ask whether disability status influences the processing of spatial scenes (perspective taking) and short sentences (phonological contrasts), two aspects of the learning of a signed language. For the methodology, we conducted a secondary, exploratory analysis of a data set including college-level American Sign Language (ASL) students. Participants completed an ASL phonological- discrimination task as well as non-linguistic and linguistic (ASL) versions of a perspective-taking task. Accuracy and response time measures for the tests were compared between a disability group with self-reported diagnoses (e.g., ADHD, learning disability) and a neurotypical group with no self-reported diagnoses. The results revealed that the disability group collectively had lower accuracy compared to the neurotypical group only on the non-linguistic perspective-taking task. Moreover, the group of students who specifically identified as having a learning disability performed worse than students who self-reported using other categories of disabilities affecting cognition. We interpret these findings as demonstrating, crucially, that the signed modality itself does not generally disadvantage disabled and/or neurodiverse learners, even those who may exhibit challenges in visuospatial processing. We recommend that signed language instructors specifically support and monitor students labeled with learning disabilities to ensure development of visual-spatial skills and processing in signed language.

Spontaneous perspective-taking and its relation to schizotypy

ABSTRACT Introduction Patients with schizophrenia differ from healthy controls in the extent that they spontaneously take another’s perspective. For such effects, it is difficult to separate the influence of schizophrenia from multiple potential confounders. Here, for the first time, associations between spontaneous perspective-taking and schizotypy were investigated in a nonclinical population. Methods Adult participants completed both a Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ-BRU) and a novel online adaptation of a visual perspective-taking task that required participants to make judgements both from their own perspective and that of a human avatar. Results Response times were elevated when the avatar’s perspective was inconsistent with that of the participant, providing evidence of spontaneous perspective-taking. This demonstrates that the visual perspective-taking task can be successfully implemented in an online format. However, schizotypy did not predict these spontaneous perspective-taking effects. Conclusions Unlike explicit mentalising, this form of implicit mentalising is not affected by nonclinical manifestations of schizotypy traits. This implies that impairment of general neurocognitive function contributes to altered spontaneous perspective-taking in schizophrenia. A novel account based on the cognitive control processes involved in perspective selection and the role of attention in perspective calculation reconciles apparently contradictory findings of earlier studies comparing patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls.

Teleporting into walls? The irrelevance of the physical world in embodied perspective-taking

Embodied theories of Level 2 visual perspective-taking usually assume that we imagine ourselves in other real-world locations to take perspectives. We tested this assertion by giving participants an embodied perspective-taking task in which they were instructed to make manual responses based on imagined perspectives. Importantly, on half of the trials, the location of the alternative perspective was not physically possible (i.e., blocked with a wall). Across two experiments, results showed that participants performed just as well for the physically impossible perspectives as for accessible ones. We interpret these data as evidence that embodied perspective-taking is agnostic to local physical features of our environment.

Integrating historical and moral consciousness in history teaching

The aim of this study is to explore historical perspective-taking from a social psychological perspective and reflect on the role of social identities and conceptions of human nature in perspective-taking. The sample consisted of 160 Year 9 students in Finland who responded to a historical perspective-taking task based on an edited excerpt from the book Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (Browning, 1999). Based on qualitative content analysis, four types of answers were identified: all groups have the potential for good and evil; in-group is morally superior; lessons learned from history; and in the future similar situation would be possible. Social identity as an in-group – out-group distinction was essential in the responses as well as moral and historical empathy. Our empirical data shows that many students are willing and able to reflect on complex ethical questions on history lessons, and therefore we suggest that open discussions and consideration of different perspectives should be encouraged in history teaching. In addition, connecting historical topics to current day issues would help students to recognize the patterns of thinking that may lead to intergroup conflicts and violence.

Perspectives, they might be a-changin': A proactive-control take on the cognitive cost of maintaining one’s own perspective.

The world abounds with different perspectives, which necessitates balancing between maintaining the currently relevant perspective and flexibly switching between perspectives, if needed. Employing the distinction between reactive and proactive control (Braver, 2012), we argue that previous research on perspective-taking has mainly looked at the cost of activating reactive control to deal with what is happening now. Here we examine the cost of activating proactive control in order to be prepared for what might happen in the future. In three experiments, we embed a perspective-taking task (Samson et al., 2010) into a task-switching design and calculate perspective-mixing costs to capture proactive control. We show that a context in which perspective shifts might occur unpredictably (compared to a context in which such shifts are not expected) results in a poorer ability to maintain any perspective, but especially one's own. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex differences in social and spatial perspective taking: A replication and extension of Tarampi et al. (2016).

Tarampi and colleagues (2016) found that females performed better on spatial perspective-taking tasks when social information was present. They interpreted this finding to suggest that adding social information would uniquely improve the performance of females due to their better social perspective taking. In this replication and extension study, we tested an alternative explanation for their results: the tasks with social information also provided spatial information which could explain improved performance. In a study with 278 college students, we used the two versions of the tasks from their study (no social or spatial information and with social and spatial information) and added two versions that isolate only social and only spatial information. Our replication of Tarampi et al.'s analyses found no difference in females' performance on the tasks; however, when both females and males were included, we found some evidence for better performance in the social and spatial condition. Examining both males' and females' performance in all four conditions, we found that males outperformed females. In addition, participants who completed tasks with spatial information performed better. Findings suggest the difference observed in Tarampi et al. may have been due to the inclusion of spatial information, not social information, that improves task performance for both females and males. These results suggest that spatial perspective-taking performance is better when given even subtle spatial cues, but that social information alone does not appear to improve performance, despite ties with social perspective taking.

Authentic perspective-taking: Looking beyond abstract spatial skills to the influence of culture and environment

Although spatial reasoning is developed through interaction with the real world, many studies focus on abstract spatial skills which exhibit a moderate relationship with real-world skills. In the present study, we explore links between middle-school student performance on abstract and authentic spatial tasks. Thirty students from three geographically diverse settings demonstrated their perspective-taking skills with local landmarks and how these relate to an abstract perspective-taking task. Rural and regional students demonstrated accurate estimations for landmark locations relative to urban students. The use of spatial tools such as gesture, language, and spatial relations were analyzed to explore student processing during the task. Our findings suggest that the connection between abstract and authentic tasks is not always straight-forward. Students from rural and regional areas demonstrated robust knowledge of their local environment with evidence for meaningful connections embedded in sociocultural and geographic experiences. By contrast, more urban students were able to apply sound spatial strategies when completing the abstract task but struggled to apply these strategies without the local knowledge or awareness of their position in space. We propose that often-neglected authentic spatial tasks assess a different, but critical element of spatial skills needed for navigating the world around us.

Measuring Spatial Perspective Taking: Analysis of Four Measures Using Item Response Theory.

Research on spatial thinking requires reliable and valid measures of individual differences in various component skills. Spatial perspective taking (PT)-the ability to represent viewpoints different from one's own-is one kind of spatial skill that is especially relevant to navigation. This study had two goals. First, the psychometric properties of four PT tests were examined: Four Mountains Task (FMT), Spatial Orientation Task (SOT), Perspective-Taking Task for Adults (PTT-A), and Photographic Perspective-Taking Task (PPTT). Using item response theory (IRT), item difficulty, discriminability, and efficiency of item information functions were evaluated. Second, the relation of PT scores to general intelligence, working memory, and mental rotation (MR) was assessed. All tasks showed good construct validity except for FMT. PPTT tapped a wide range of PT ability, with maximum measurement precision at average ability. PTT-A captured a lower range of ability. Although SOT contributed less measurement information than other tasks, it did well across a wide range of PT ability. After controlling for general intelligence and working memory, original and IRT-refined versions of PT tasks were each related to MR. PTT-A and PPTT showed relatively more divergent validity from MR than SOT. Tests of dimensionality indicated that PT tasks share one common PT dimension, with secondary task-specific factors also impacting the measurement of individual differences in performance. Advantages and disadvantages of a hybrid PT test that includes a combination of items across tasks are discussed.

The Fox and the Lion: Investigating Associations between Empathy and Emotion Perspective-Taking in Aesop’s Fables

Empathy is essential in story comprehension as it requires understanding of the emotions and intentions of the characters. We evaluated the sensitivity of an emotional perspective-taking task using Aesop’s Fables in relation to empathy. Participants (N = 301) were presented with 15 short fables and were asked to rate the intensity of the emotions they would feel (anger, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, joy, trust, and anticipation) by adopting the perspective of one of the characters (offender, victim) or the observer’s perspective. A data-driven approach revealed that participants’ responses were aligned with the characters’ intentions, suggesting successful emotional perspective-taking. Participants sympathized with the victim rather than the offender, demonstrating affective sharing processes. Further, participants with higher empathy scores exhibited stronger negative emotions from the victim’s perspective, independently of their level of distress. Our task was not influenced by gender effects. We suggest that the Aesop’s Fables task could provide an indirect instrument to study empathy.

Inhibitory Control was needed in Level-1 Visual Perspective Taking: A Developing Negative Priming Study.

AimPrevious studies have found that both children and adults have difficulties in dealing with judgments in which self-perspective differs from other-perspective, even in level-1 perspective-taking. However, the underlying cognitive mechanism of this is still unclear. In the present study, we designed a negative priming (NP) paradigm of the dot-perspective task to examine whether inhibitory control was required to overcome egocentric bias in level-1 visual perspective-taking in children and adults. We observed an NP effect in both children (n= 43) and adults (n= 40). However, there was no significant difference between children and adults on the magnitude of the NP effect, indicating that when children could overcome the egocentric bias, they had inhibitory control ability comparable to that of adults in level-1 other-perspective-taking.BackgroundVisual perspective-taking is an indispensable ability in social interaction; hence, it has attracted great attention from researchers. However, the mechanism underlying this process remains unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the role of inhibitory control in level-1 visual perspective-taking from a developmental perspective in order to understand the performance differences in perspective-taking tasks between children and adults.MethodsThe NP paradigm was applied to the dot-perspective task. Participants’ response times (RTs) and error rates (ERs) were recorded during the experiment. A 2 (trial type: test vs control, within-subject) × 2 (age: children vs adults) mix-design ANOVA was used to analyse the RTs and ERs data separately.ResultsWe observed an NP effect for both children (7.31, t (42) = 2.78, p < 0.01, Cohen’s d = 0.22) and adults (27.58, t (39) = 2.31, p < 0.05, Cohen’s d = 0.21). However, the difference in the magnitude of the NP effect between children and adults was not significant (t (81) = 0.54, p = 0.59).ConclusionInhibitory control was needed to overcome egocentric bias in level-1 visual perspective-taking for both children and adults. Moreover, when children could overcome egocentric bias, they had an inhibitory control ability comparable to that of adults.

Visual perspective-taking in complex natural scenes.

Studies of visual perspective-taking have shown that adults can rapidly and accurately compute their own and other peoples’ viewpoints, but they experience difficulties when the two perspectives are inconsistent. We tested whether these egocentric (i.e., interference from one’s own perspective) and altercentric biases (i.e., interference from another person’s perspective) persist in ecologically valid complex environments. Participants (N = 150) completed a dot-probe visual perspective-taking task, in which they verified the number of discs in natural scenes containing real people, first only according to their own perspective and then judging both their own and another person’s perspective. Results showed that the other person’s perspective did not disrupt self perspective-taking judgements when the other perspective was not explicitly prompted. In contrast, egocentric and altercentric biases were found when participants were prompted to switch between self and other perspectives. These findings suggest that altercentric visual perspective-taking can be activated spontaneously in complex real-world contexts, but is subject to both top-down and bottom-up influences, including explicit prompts or salient visual stimuli.