Thermodynamic Perspective Research Articles

Energetic, exergetic, and exergoeconomic analyses of beer wort production processes

Energy efficiency strategies in industrial breweries examine the inefficiency of thermal systems from a thermodynamic perspective. However, understanding the costs of inefficiencies in systems, including non-thermodynamic costs, requires exergoeconomics. This study examined wort production in a standard Tier-1 brewery from the tripod of energy, exergy, and exergoeconomics analyses to assess the performance of brewing sections and to pinpoint components that contributed the most to exergy destruction and product cost rate. The energy analyses for the production system showed that the total specific energy for processing 10.05 tons of brew grains to 346.98 hL high-gravity wort was (86 ± 1) MJ/hL at an operational energy efficiency of 30.35%. The exergetic analyses showed that the cumulative exergetic destruction was 3.2737 MW, with the brewhouse section contributing 89.25% of the system’s inefficiencies. Also, the analyses showed that the wort kettle (42.7911%), mash tun (10.8086%), preheater (10.0683%), whirlpool (8.3522%), and adjunct kettle (6.2705%) are the top five components with the highest rates of cumulative exergy destruction. The exergoeconomic analyses revealed that the cost rate of processing chilled wort was estimated to be 0.0681 USD/s per overall exergetic efficiency of 6.61%. The five most significant components are the wort kettle (53.70%), whirlpool (16.42%), mash filter (10.44%), mash tun (6.875%), and adjunct kettle (3.31%) based on the relative total cost increases for the production processes. Additionally, wet steam throttling resulted in a 2.51% increase in exergetic efficiency, a 1.60% drop in exergetic destruction rate, and a decrease in cost rates to 0.0675 USD/s.

The potential of supramolecular synthon to develop coamorphous systems with tailored physical stability: Mechanistic insights integrating kinetics and thermodynamics

Coamorphous drug delivery systems have received increasing interest owing to their potential to improve the solubility, dissolution and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. However, the crystallization risk is one of major limitations in their application. It has been widely recognized that the coformer plays a vital role in physical stability of coamorphous formulation. Unfortunately, the screen of optimal coformer still adopts a trial-and-error method, which is time-consuming and expensive. Herein, a supramolecular synthon approach based on the interaction between functional groups, was exploited to design coamorphous systems (CMs) consisting of lurasidone hydrochloride (LH) and three coformers, saccharin (SAC), L-tryptophan (TRP), and L-cysteine hydrochloride (CYS). X-ray powder diffraction suggested the order of physical stability of the coamorphous systems was ranked as LH-CYS CM > LH-TRP CM > LH-SAC CM. The charge-assisted hydrogen bond between LH and coformer was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy and solid-state 13C NMR. Moreover, structural, electronic, and molecular interaction information, especially hydrogen bonding interactions, were quantified by theoretical calculations, including miscibility calculations, molecular dynamics simulations and quantum chemical calculations. It was revealed that LH-CYS CM exhibited the best miscibility, strongest binding energy and strongest H-bond with partially covalent character, demonstrating the significant role of supramolecular synthon in stabilizing coamorphous formulations. Interestingly, LH-TRP CM, not LH-CYS CM, exhibited the lowest molecular mobility among three coamorphous systems, which was inconsistent with their physical stability. But from thermodynamic perspective, the order of configurational entropy and physical stability of coamorphous systems was completely consistent. We shed light on the comprehensive effects of molecular mobility and configurational entropy on physical stability of coamorphous systems. Importantly, the relationship between supramolecular synthon and kinetic/thermodynamic mechanisms was also discussed, and the positive correlation between configurational entropy and intermolecular interactions was proposed in this paper. Our findings demonstrated the great potential of supramolecular synthon in designing coamorphous systems with tailored physical stability, and further provided a deeper insight into the mechanisms of physical stability of coamorphous systems.

Non-extensive entropy and power-law inflation: Implications for observations

This study explores the interaction between non-extensive entropic FLRW cosmology and the power-law inflationary model, with a focus on the overlap between the scalar spectral index “[Formula: see text]” and the tensor-to-scalar ratio “r”. Based on a conjecture that non-extensive entropy alters the energy–momentum content of the cosmic fluid, the analysis examines how these overlaps shift with different model parameters and compares the findings to those from Bekenstein–Hawking (BH) entropic cosmology. The study highlights the impact of Tsallis, Rényi, and Sharma–Mittal entropies, uncovering a significant correlation between “[Formula: see text]” and “r” that suggests a deeper connection in power-law inflationary dynamics. The results demonstrate that non-extensive entropies not only enable viable inflation with a graceful exit but also address limitations inherent in the standard BH entropic framework, emphasizing the importance of precise parameter estimation. Specifically, Tsallis entropy allows for power-law inflation with [Formula: see text] to [Formula: see text] in alignment with Planck 2018 data. Moreover, the [Formula: see text] parameter in Rényi and Sharma–Mittal entropy models must be extremely small ([Formula: see text] in Planck mass units) to achieve successful power-law inflation with an e-folding number around 55–65, suggesting a unified thermodynamic perspective in cosmological studies.

Techno-economic and advanced exergy analysis and machine-learning-based multi-objective optimization of the combined supercritical CO2 and organic flash cycles

In the past few years, attention has been directed towards the advancement of renewable-driven supercritical CO2 recompression Brayton (SCRB) cycles. This highlights the impacts of sustainable and efficient power production towards transition in the electricity sector. The combination of the SCRB cycle with the organic flash cycle (OFC) is comprehensively investigated from thermodynamic, techno-economic, environmental, and advanced exergy perspectives. Conventional thermodynamic analysis alone cannot provide information on the cause of irreversibilities, the interconnections between components, and the possibility of enhancing their performance; therefore, advanced exergy analysis is implemented. Furthermore, an examination has been conducted into the effects of different decision parameters on the exergoenvironmental indicators. Multi-objective optimization based on machine learning is performed on the SCRB/OFC plant to maximize exergy efficiency, net present value, and net power output. Results from advanced exergy analysis revealed that the reactor has the worst performance, with just 2.8 % of its total exergy destruction being avoidable. Furthermore, it is feasible to decrease its total exergy destruction rate by 21.6 % through enhancements in the performances of other components. Under the optimized conditions, exergy efficiency, net present value, and net power output are found to be 70.8 %, 1347.1 M$, and 306.4 MW, respectively, representing a 21.1 %, 68.9 %, and 21.1 % enhancement compared with the base conditions, respectively.

A Circulation Study Based on the 2022 Sino–Vietnamese Joint Survey Data from the Beibu Gulf

This study analyzed the horizontal and vertical distribution characteristics of temperature and salinity in the central and eastern regions of the Beibu Gulf, based on conductivity measurements in summer 2022, temperature, and depth (CTD) measurement data from the Sino–Vietnamese cooperative project “Demonstration Study on Ecological Protection and Management in Typical Bays: Seasonal Survey of the Beibu Gulf”. Furthermore, the study utilized the computational results from the numerical Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Model (FVCOM) to elucidate the intrinsic patterns that formed the temperature and salinity distribution characteristics in August 2022 from both thermodynamic and dynamic perspectives. The circulation in the Beibu Gulf drives external seawater to move northward from the bay mouth. During this movement, numerous upwelling areas are created by lateral Ekman transport. The formation of different scales of cyclonic and anticyclonic vortices and current convergence zones is influenced by topography, runoff, and the water flux from the Qiongzhou Strait, which are key factors in the formation of upwelling and downwelling. The surface circulation in August 2022 significantly differed from the 20-year average surface circulation, with an influx of 1.15 × 104 m3/s more water entering the Beibu Gulf compared to the multi-year average. The water flux from the Qiongzhou Strait is a critical factor affecting the circulation patterns in the Beibu Gulf. The northeastern waters of the Beibu Gulf are characterized by current convergence zones, where extensive upwelling occurs. The rich nutrient salts in these areas promote the reproduction and growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton, making this the most favorable ecological environment in the Beibu Gulf and serving as a natural reserve for fisheries, coral reefs, dugongs, and Bryde’s whales.

High-Temperature Chlorination of Rhodium Using Alkali-Metal and Alkaline-Earth-Metal Chlorides

AbstractThis study was aimed at investigating an effective chlorination method for Rh and its oxide to develop an efficient Rh extraction process. The feasibility of using alkali-metal and alkaline-earth-metal chlorides (NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2) as chlorinating agents was evaluated from the perspective of thermodynamics; the prediction results revealed MgCl2 as a suitable agent for chlorinating metallic Rh and Rh2O3 in an oxygen-containing atmosphere. The thermodynamic analysis results were then experimentally validated. Metallic Rh converted to RhCl3 when mixed with MgCl2 and heated at 973 K (700 °C) in an O2 atmosphere. The Rh2O3 powder was efficiently chlorinated when reacted with liquid MgCl2 at 1073 K (800 °C) in an Ar–1 pct O2 atmosphere. Therefore, the chlorination of Rh using MgCl2 is feasible; its use has potential to make the extraction and recovery of Rh from various raw materials more efficient. Graphical Abstract

Research Progress in Structure Evolution and Durability Modulation of Ir- and Ru-Based OER Catalysts under Acidic Conditions.

Green hydrogen energy, as one of the most promising energy carriers, plays a crucial role in addressing energy and environmental issues. Oxygen evolution reaction catalysts, as the key to water electrolysis hydrogen production technology, have been subject to durability constraints, preventing large-scale commercial development. Under the high current density and harsh acid-base electrolyte conditions of the water electrolysis reaction, the active metals in the catalysts are easily converted into high-valent soluble species to dissolve, leading to poor structural durability of the catalysts. There is an urgent need to overcome the durability challenges under acidic conditions and develop electrocatalysts with both high catalytic activity and high durability. In this review, the latest research results are analyzed in depth from both thermodynamic and kinetic perspectives. First, a comprehensive summary of the structural deactivation state process of noble metal oxide catalysts is presented. Second, the evolution of the structure of catalysts possessing high durability is discussed. Finally, four new strategies for the preparation of stable catalysts, "electron buffer (ECB) strategy", combination strength control, strain control, and surface coating, are summarized. The challenges and prospects are also elaborated for the future synthesis of more effective Ru/Ir-based catalysts and boost their future application.

Thermodynamics of the Quantum Mpemba Effect.

We investigate the quantum Mpemba effect from the perspective of nonequilibrium quantum thermodynamics by studying relaxation dynamics of quantum systems coupled to a Markovian heat bath, which are described by Davies maps. Starting from a state with coherences in the energy eigenbasis, we demonstrate that an exponential speedup to equilibrium will always occur if the state is transformed to a diagonal state in the energy eigenbasis, provided that the spectral gap of the generator is defined by a complex eigenvalue. When the transformed state has a higher nonequilibrium free energy, we argue using thermodynamic reasoning that this is a genuine quantum Mpemba effect. Furthermore, we show how a unitary transformation on an initial state can always be constructed to yield the effect and demonstrate our findings by studying the dynamics of both the nonequilibrium free energy and the irreversible entropy production in single and multiqubit examples.

Applying both kinetic and thermodynamic measures to promote solar-driven photocatalytic ozonation on defect-engineered porous tungsten oxide

Mass transfer of ozone within the inner structure of a catalyst and utilization efficiency of the photo-generated electrons are two decisive factors governing the production of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) in photocatalytic ozonation process from kinetic and thermodynamic perspectives, respectively. For achieving precise dual-control, defect-engineered tungsten oxide with a periodic porous architecture (p-WO3-OV) is synthesized. Compared with pristine WO3, p-WO3-OV achieves a 7.6-fold increase in the reaction rate of solar photocatalytic ozonation, accompanied by a 2.3-fold enhancement in the ozone utilization efficiency. The constructed periodic porous structure shortens the migration path of charge carriers and promotes the fluidity of the reactants. The rich oxygen vacancies in WO3 enhance the generation of charge carriers and promote O3 interactions. This work provides mechanistic insights into both the kinetic boost endowed by porous nanoarchitecture, and the thermodynamic modulation enabled by defect engineering to achieve the synergy in solar-driven photocatalytic ozonation.

Outbursts Upon Cooling of Low‐Temperature Binary Mixtures: Experiments and Their Planetary Implications

AbstractFor many binary mixtures, the three‐phase solid‐liquid‐vapor equilibrium curve has intermediate pressures that are higher than the pressure at the two pure triple points. This curve shape results in a negative slope in the high‐temperature region near the triple point of the less volatile component. When freezing mixtures in the negative slope regime, fluid trapped below confined ice has latent heat released with more vapor upon cooling, and thus increases in pressure. If the rising pressure of the confined fluid overcomes the strength of the confining solid, which may be its own ice, it can produce an abrupt outburst of material and an increase in the system's overall pressure. Here, we report experimental results of freezing‐induced outbursts occurring in the N2/CH4, CO/CH4, and N2/C2H6 systems, and provide insight into the phenomenon through a thermodynamics perspective. We also propose other binary systems that may experience outbursts and explore the geological implications for icy worlds such as Titan, Triton, Pluto and Eris as well as rocky bodies, specifically Earth and Mars.

Benchmarking Heat-driven Adsorption Carbon Pumps (HACP): A Thermodynamic Perspective

Benchmarking is pivotal in standardizing industrial devices, leading to notable performance enhancements in fields such as heating pump air conditioning, photovoltaic devices, and more. The significance of treating the CO2 capture system in small/medium size was emphasized in this work as a standalone device from a thermodynamic perspective, which facilitates the creation of a comprehensive benchmarking methodology. In this study, we studied the heat-driven adsorption carbon pump (HACP) as a typical case for benchmarking. The benchmarking methodology proposed is structured through a five-step process: defining boundaries, determining indicators, establishing calculation processes, collecting and analyzing data, and ultimately evaluating and optimizing performance. By utilizing thermodynamic principles, the energy efficiency of HACP devices was assessed. Through the combination of standardized tests and theoretical calculations, this work enables a quantitative evaluation of energy consumption and the thermodynamic perfection of specific HACP devices.

Preparation of hollow MgO nanosorbents via the templating method and study of their adsorption mechanism

The treatment of dye-containing wastewater has been a concern in recent years. Herein, we used laboratory-waste-skimmed cotton as a biotemplate and successfully synthesized MgO hollow tubular nanosorbents via a mild microwave solvent-thermal method. In adsorption experiments, the response surface methodology and Box–Behnken design were used to optimize and determine the optimal Mg(OAc)2 concentration (0.4 mol/L), skimmed cotton template mass (0.4 g), and calcination temperature for Congo red adsorption (600 °C). The adsorption process was comprehensively analyzed from thermodynamic and kinetic perspectives. Results showed that the adsorption process of MgO-urea template (MgO-UT) hollow nanosorbent conforms to the Dubinin–Radushkevich equation of the ion-exchange adsorption process and follows the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The maximum amount of Congo red adsorbed by MgO-UT hollow nanosorbent is 3511.35 mg/g, demonstrating its excellent adsorption effect. Therefore, MgO hollow tubular nanosorbents prepared using biological templates can be used as novel organic dye adsorbents.

Phase-Field Simulation of Spinodal Decomposition in U-50Zr Metallic Nuclear Fuel.

During the γ phase-δ phase transition, U-50Zr fuel experiences spinodal decomposition, which has a significant effect on fuel properties. However, little is known about the spinodal decomposition of U-50Zr. The spinodal decomposition behavior in U-50Zr is studied in this research using the phase-field approach. The mechanism of spinodal decomposition from a thermodynamic perspective is studied, and the effects of temperature and grain boundary (GB) on spinodal decomposition are analyzed. It is found that the concentration of U atoms in the U-rich phase formed during spinodal decomposition is as high as 90%. The U-rich phase first appears at the GB position, and precipitation phases appear inside the grain later. Ostwald ripening occurs when larger precipitation phases on the GB absorb isolated smaller precipitation phases inside the grain. The coarsening rate of precipitation phases and the time it takes for spinodal decomposition to achieve equilibrium are both influenced by temperature.

Optimization of biomass-fueled multigeneration system using SOFC for electricity, hydrogen, and freshwater production

The rapid depletion of fossil fuel resources and their detrimental impact on the environment necessitates the exploration of renewable energy alternatives. Biomass stands out as a reliable renewable source, especially in multigeneration systems. This study suggests a biomass-driven multigeneration configuration for the production of electricity, heating, hydrogen, and freshwater. The configuration is evaluated from thermodynamic and economic perspectives, utilizing an Artificial Neural Network to predict key outcomes. The system optimization process integrates Machine Learning with decision-making methods to achieve optimal conditions. The findings highlight that an anode-cathode gas recycling design is the most effective configuration for the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell unit, achieving a cycle efficiency of 67.68% and a product cost of $11.41/GJ. Municipal Solid Waste biomass and CO2 were identified as the most efficient fuel and gasification agents, respectively. The evaluations also determined that the integration of the multi-objective grey wolf optimizer and the CatBoost method is the most reliable machine learning model for optimization. Furthermore, by combining the Multi-Objective Harris Hawks Optimization algorithm with TOPSIS, LINMAP, and Fuzzy decision-making approaches, the system achieves optimal performance across multiple scenarios. In one scenario, the system reached an exergy efficiency of 67.68% and a hydrogen production rate of 22.34 kg/h. The optimum recycling ratios for the anode and cathode were determined to be 0.16 and 0.38, respectively. The study demonstrates the feasibility of the proposed configuration, offering significant potential for sustainable and cost-effective energy generation.

On the mechanism and energetics of electrochemical alloy formation between mercury and platinum for mercury removal from aqueous solutions

Mercury pollution is an acute global concern threatening the health of humans and wildlife. Thus, there is a need for new and improved techniques to reduce emissions and remove toxic mercury from aqueous environments. Electrochemical alloy formation, specifically between mercury ions in aqueous solution and a platinum electrode, emerges as a promising solution. Through analysis of reaction mechanisms and energetics related to the formation and dissolution of the PtHg4 alloy, this study aims to deepen our understanding of the underlying processes of effective electrochemical mercury removal. Potentiodynamic measurements indicate rapid alloy formation at a clean platinum surface, proceeding with only trace amounts of metallic mercury on the surface. However, once the electrode surface has sufficient mercury coverage with an alloy thickness of around 1.5 nm, clear evidence of metallic mercury on the surface is observed. Furthermore, the amount of absorbed mercury on the cathode increases linearly in time. The onset potential for the alloy formation is experimentally determined using electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring to be approximately 0.64 V vs. SHE, and the alloy dissolution (oxidation) onset potential is found to be approximately 0.98 V vs. SHE, at a mercury ion concentration of 10 mg/L. Density functional theory calculations are used to provide a theoretical value for the reversible potential from a thermodynamics perspective, yielding a value of 0.78 V vs. SHE at a mercury ion concentration of 10 mg/L. This value is in excellent agreement with the experimental results, suggesting an overpotential of about 0.14 and 0.20 V for the alloy formation and oxidation, respectively. These findings provide important information on the reaction mechanisms and overpotentials of the PtHg4 alloy formation and dissolution, which are key factors for development of large-scale mercury removal based on this technique, as well as fundamental understanding of the electrochemical alloy formation between mercury ions and platinum.

On thermodynamic processes, state equations and critical phenomena for homogeneous mixtures

In this paper, we study the thermodynamics of homogeneous mixtures in equilibrium. From the perspective of thermodynamics, substances are understood as Legendre submanifolds, which are equipped with a Riemannian structure in addition. We refer to these as Legendre-Riemannian manifolds. This Legendre structure reflects the law of conservation of energy, while the Riemannian structure corresponds to the second central moment of measurement of extensive quantities, indicating that we only consider stable states. Thermodynamic processes, such as chemical reactions, correspond to contact vector fields that preserve the law of energy conservation, or are contact. The presence of a Riemannian structure distinguishes between three classes of processes: positive, which increase the metric; neutral, which preserve the metric; and negative, which decrease the metric. We provide a detailed description of the processes and suggest a method for finding state equations for a homogeneous mixture in mechanical or chemical equilibrium.

Design and economic analysis of an innovative multi-generation system in different Countries with diverse economic contexts

This paper presents an innovative trigeneration system designed to maximize energy utilization by simultaneously producing power, cooling, and freshwater. The system integrates multiple energy sources, including biomass, natural gas, and geothermal energy, and comprises a modified gas turbine cycle, a geothermal power plant, a triple-effect absorption refrigeration cycle, and a multi-effect desalination unit. Performance metrics are evaluated from both thermodynamic and economic perspectives across four case studies: Australia, the USA, China, and Russia. The economic feasibility analysis utilizes real-state economic data, incorporating natural gas prices, electricity prices for households, interest rates, and inflation rates specific to each country. The system achieved impressive outputs, with net power, cooling, and freshwater production rates of 6299 kW, 140.1 kW, and 13.41 kg/s, respectively. Exergy analysis revealed that the combustion chamber, heat exchanger, and multi-effect desalination units exhibit the highest irreversibility, with exergy destruction rates of 2961 kW, 1125 kW, and 995.3 kW, respectively. The fixed capital investment cost is estimated at $13.5 million, resulting in a payback period of 6.75 years and a net present value of $7.287 million. In Australia, the system demonstrated a particularly favorable economic performance, with a payback period of 3.98 years and a net present value of $36.19 million. Conversely, in China, the payback period exceeds the system's expected lifetime, highlighting the economic challenges in certain environments. These results underscore the system's potential for profitability and sustainability, particularly in regions with favorable economic conditions.

17.2% Efficiency for Completely Non‐Fused Acceptor Organic Solar Cells Via Re‐Intermixing Strategy in D/A Stratified Active Layer

AbstractPursuing power conversion efficiency (PCE) is the priority of developing organic solar cells (OSCs) based on low‐cost completely non‐fused ring acceptors. Herein, a donor/acceptor re‐intermixing strategy to enhance the photon capturing process, based on a previously established well‐stratified active layer morphology is reported. By adding 20 wt% PTQ10 (polymer donor) into the acceptor's precursor, the device PCE is increased to 16.03% from 15.11% of the D18/A4T‐16 control system, which is attributed to the additional charge generation interface and suppressed bimolecular recombination. On the contrary, using the equal ratio of PM6 leads to significant efficiency loss, indicating the importance of considering vertical distribution from the perspective of thermodynamics. Moreover, a cutting‐edge level of 17.21% efficiency for completely non‐fused ring acceptor systems is realized by altering the active layer to PBQx‐TF/TBT‐26 and PTQ11, via the identical processing strategy. This work thus presents attractive device engineering and solar cell performance, as well as in‐depth vertical morphology understanding.

Amorphous Strategy and Doping Copper on Metal-Organic Framework Surface for Enhanced Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction to C2H4.

Amorphous photocatalysts are characterized by numerous grain boundaries and abundant unsaturated sites, which enhance reaction efficiency from both kinetic and thermodynamic perspectives. However, amorphization strategies have rarely been used for photocatalytic CO2 reduction. Doping copper onto a metal-organic framework (MOF) surface can regulate the electronic structure of photocatalysts, promote electron transfer from the MOF to Cu, and improve the separation efficiency of electron-hole pairs. In this study, an amorphous photocatalyst MOFw-p/Cu containing highly dispersed Cu (0, I, II) sites was designed and synthesized by introducing a regulator and in situ copper species during the nucleation process of MOF (UiO-66-NH2). Various characterizations confirmed that the Cu species were anchored to the organometallic skeleton of the surface amorphization MOF structure. The synergistic effect of Cu doping and surface amorphization in MOFw-p/Cu can significantly enhance the CO and CH4 yields while promoting the formation of the multicarbon product C2H4. The approach holds promise for developing novel, highly efficient MOFs as photocatalysts for CO2 photoreduction, enabling the production of high-value-added C2 products.

Development and modeling of power, hydrogen and freshwater production based on a novel double-flash geothermal power plant

In this article, a novel geothermal energy-assisted multigeneration plant is proposed and analyzed from the thermodynamic, economic, and environmental perspectives. In the design of the geothermal power system, a transcritical Rankine cycle, which employs CO2 as the working fluid (tCO2-RC), a Kalina cycle (KC), a hydrogen generation sub-plant, and a desalination unit are considered. The reverse osmosis (RO) desalination process is used for freshwater production, while the proton exchanger membrane (PEM) electrolyzer is utilized for hydrogen generation. In addition, parametric analyses are conducted to ascertain the impacts of the temperature of the geothermal source, mass flow rate, and flash chamber pressure on system performance. According to the results, the plant's overall energetic and exergetic efficiencies are determined to be 8.6 % and 34.9 %, respectively where the net power production is calculated as 3317.94 kW, and the system's total irreversibility is found to be 5852.88 kW. Furthermore, the hourly H2, O2, and freshwater generation amounts are 8.5 kg, 49.1 kg, and 9.3 m3, respectively. Finally, the levelized energy cost (LEC) and sustainability index of the system are found to be 0.128 USD/kWh and 0.215.