Personal Music System Research Articles

WPŁYW OSOBISTYCH SYSTEMÓW MUZYCZNYCH NA SŁUCH U MŁODYCH DOROSŁYCH: BADANIE KWESTIONARIUSZOWE

BackgroundNoise exposure damages cochlear hair cells resulting in sensorineural hearing loss along with other symptoms like tinnitus and vertigo. One source of loud sound exposure in young adults is personal music systems (PMS). The present study investigated the auditory- related symptoms in regular PMS users by administering a questionnaire on PMS usage and associated symptoms in individuals who were regular users of PMS and compared results with non-regular PMS users.Material and methodsThere were 260 young adults who participated in the study. Individuals who used PMS for ≥1 hour per day at a volume control setting of ≥60% for ≥2 years were considered regular PMS users, while other participants were considered non-regular PMS users. A custom-made questionnaire with a total of 24 questions was administered to all participants.ResultsStatistical analysis indicated that the occurrence of symptoms such as reduced hearing and vertigo were significantly higher in regular PMS users than in non-regular users. However, other symptoms such as tinnitus, difficulty in perception of speech in noisy situations, ear pain, and headache were not significantly different between the groups.ConclusionsThe findings substantiate the harmful effects of regular PMS usage on hearing and related functions. They also document the incidence of associated symptoms.

Self-Reported Drug Use and Hearing Measures in Young Adults.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine marijuana or other substance use on pure-tone thresholds and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) in young adults. Method Young adults (n = 243; 182 women, 61 men; M age = 20.9 years, SD = 2.7 years) participated in this study. Survey data included personal music system use, marijuana use, and misuse of prescription medications. Otoscopy, tympanometry, pure-tone audiometry, and DPOAEs were obtained. Pure tones from octave frequencies of 0.25 through 8 kHz were obtained, and DPOAEs were recorded between f2 frequencies of 1 and 6 kHz using two continuously presented stimulus tones swept in frequency. Results Those who reported marijuana or stimulant use had similar pure-tone averages (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz) compared to those who reported never using marijuana or stimulants. Women who reported marijuana use in the past 30 days > two times had statistically significant higher mean DPOAEs compared to women who reported ≤ two times or no marijuana use in the past 30 days. Men, however, who reported marijuana use in the past 30 days > two times had lower, but not statistically significant, mean DPOAEs compared to men who reported ≤ two times or no marijuana use in the past 30 days. Women who reported ever using stimulants had statistically significant higher mean DPOAEs compared to women who reported never using stimulants; for men, mean DPOAEs were similar between those who reported ever using stimulants and those who never used stimulants. Conclusions The results of this study demonstrate different and contradictory associations between marijuana use, stimulant use, and hearing outcomes as a function of sex. Future research is needed to explore these associations utilizing larger sample sizes while accounting for additional harmful exposures to other noise exposures.

Music recommender using deep embedding-based features and behavior-based reinforcement learning

With the rapid increase of digital music on online music platforms, it has become difficult for users to find unknown but interesting songs. Although many collaborative filtering or content based recommendation methods have been proposed, they have various relatively serious some problems, including cold start, diversity of recommendations. etc. Therefore, we propose a reinforcement personal music recommendation system (RPMRS) to address these problems. RPMRS comprises two main components. First, deep representation of audio and lyrics extracted by WaveNet and Word2Vec models, respectively, and apply a proposed content based recommendation method from these. Second, we employ reinforcement learning is to learn user preferences from their song playing log. Experimental results confirm, that hybrid features are superior to audio or lyrics based features for content recommendation, largely because independent audio features significantly outperform lyrics features; and reinforcement learning improves personalized recommendations. Overall, the proposed RPMRS provides dynamic and personalized music recommendations for the user.

Risk Factors for Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emissions in Young Adults

Young adults with normal hearing may exhibit risk factors for hearing loss. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how self-reported personal music (PM) system volume use, preferred listening level, and self-reported alcohol use affects distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs). Two-hundred, sixteen young adults, 161 women and 55 men, participated. Questionnaire data included the PM system and alcohol use. DPOAEs were obtained from 1–6 kHz and collapsed into 1/3rd octave bands and a probe microphone was used to determine preferred listening level. Alcohol was defined as drinks per month (DPM), categorized as No, Light (≤14), and Heavy (>14). Men who reported loud/very loud volume use had statistically significant lower DPOAEs at 1.5, 2, and 3 kHz than men who reported lower volume use. Light and Heavy DPM men had lower DPOAEs at 1.5, 2, and 3 kHz than no DPM men, but this was not statistically significant. There were no DPOAE differences for either variable in women and there was no association between preferred listening level and DPOAEs for women or men. Men who reported loud/very loud volume use and any DPM had poorer mid-frequency DPOAEs. There was not an association for volume use or DPM and DPOAEs in women.

Can Self-Reported Personal Audio System Volume Predict Actual Listening Levels in Young Adults?

Most young adults report using personal audio systems (PAS) with earphones as part of their daily activities. PAS exposure is intermittent and research examining the levels these young adults are listening to is increasing. On average, preferred listening levels are below what would be considered at risk in an occupational setting. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how two questions predicted preferred listening level in young adults with normal hearing; specifically, whether these young adults could identify if they listen at a high level or not. One hundred and sixty young adults (111 women, 49 men) with normal hearing completed a questionnaire that had questions about PAS listening habits and then had preferred listening level assessed using a probe microphone system while listening to 1 hour of music through earphones. Otoscopy, tympanometry, and pure-tone thresholds were completed in a randomly determined test ear. As part of the Risk Factors Survey, two closed-set questions were completed. First, "For a typical day, what is the most common volume used during this day?" with the following response options "Low," "Medium/Comfortable," "Loud," or "Very Loud." And second, "Do you listen to your personal music system at a volume where you…" with the following response options "Easily hear people," "Have a little trouble hearing people," "Have a lot of trouble hearing people," or "Cannot hear people." Using a probe microphone, chosen listening level (A-weighted, diffuse-field correction and a conversion to free-field equivalent [LDFeq]) was calculated over 1 hour while the participant listened to music with earphones. Sensitivity and specificity were determined to see how well young adults could identify themselves as listening at a high level (>85 dBA) or not. Linear regression analyses were performed to determine the amount of variance explained by the two survey questions as predictors of measured LDFeq. Almost half of the participants reported a longest single use of a PAS as <1 hour daily and more than half reported listening at a medium/comfortable volume and had a little trouble hearing people. Mean LDFeq was 72.5 dBA, with young adult men having a significantly higher mean LDFeq (76.5 dBA) compared with young adult women (70.8 dBA). Sensitivity was 88.9% and specificity was 70.6% for the question asking about volume on a typical day. For the question asking about being able to hear other people while listening to music sensitivity was 83.3% and specificity was 82.5%. Two variables, listening volume on a typical day and sex, accounted for 28.4% of the variability associated with LDFeq; the answer to the question asking about being able to hear others and sex accounted for 22.8% of the variability associated with LDFeq. About 11% of young adults in the present study listen to a PAS with earphones at a high level (>85 dBA) while in a quiet background. The participants who do report listening at a high level, however, do well at self-reporting this risk behavior in survey questions.

Impact of usage of personal music systems on oto-acoustic emissions among medical students.

Background:Intact hearing is essential for medical students and physicians for communicating with patients and appreciating internal sounds with a stethoscope. With the increased use of (PMSs), they are exposed to high sound levels and are at a risk of developing hearing loss. The effect of long term personal music system (PMS) usage on auditory sensitivity has been well established. Our study has reported the immediate and short term effect of PMS usage on hearing especially among medical professionals.Objective:To assess the effect of short term PMS usage on distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAE) among medical professionals.Materials and Method:34 medical students within the age range of 17–22 years who were regular users of PMS participated in the study. All participants had hearing thresholds <15 dBHL at audiometric octave frequencies. Baseline DPOAEs were measured in all participants after 18 h of non-usage of PMS. One week later DPOAEs were again measured after two hours of continuous listening to PMS. DPOAEs were measured within the frequency range of 2 to 12 kHz with a resolution of 12 points per octave. Output sound pressure level of the PMS of each participant was measured in HA-1 coupler and it was converted to free field SPL using the transformations of RECD and REUG.Results:Paired sample t test was used to investigate the main effect of short term music listening on DPOAE amplitudes. Analysis revealed no significant main effect of music listening on DPOAE amplitudes at the octave frequencies between 2 to 4 KHz (t67 = −1.02, P = 0.31) and 4 to 8 KHz (t67 = 0.24, P = 0.81). However, there was a small but statistically significant reduction in DPOAE amplitude (t67 = 2.10, P = 0.04) in the frequency range of 9 to 12 kHz following short term usage of PMS. The mean output sound pressure level of the PMS was 98.29.Conclusion:Short term exposure to music affects the DPOAE amplitude at high frequencies and this serves as an early indicator for noise induced hearing loss (NIHL). Analysis of output sound pressure level suggests that the PMSs of the participants have the capability to induce hearing loss if the individual listened to it at the maximum volume setting. Hence, the medical professionals need to be cautious while using PMS.

Personal music systems and hearing.

To measure the output sound pressure levels of personal music systems and evaluate their effect on hearing. Output sound pressure levels at preferred volume settings and listening environment were measured using a manikin. Effects of personal music system use on hearing were evaluated using pure tone audiometry (in conventional and extended high frequency ranges), transient evoked otoacoustic emissions, syllable identification in noise, intensity discrimination, frequency discrimination and temporal modulation transfer function. Results showed, alarmingly, that large proportions of young adults are using personal music systems at levels higher than the safety limits set by regulatory bodies. Individuals who listened to personal music systems at levels higher than 80 dB LAeq exhibited poorer extended high frequency thresholds, reduced transient evoked otoacoustic emission amplitudes, poorer frequency discrimination, reduced modulation detection thresholds at 32 Hz modulation frequency, and reduced syllable identification in noise at -5 dB signal-to-noise ratio. Listening levels were significantly correlated with extended high frequency thresholds and transient evoked otoacoustic emission amplitudes. These results suggest that listening to music through personal music systems at higher volume levels may be hazardous to hearing.

Effect of personal music system use on sacculocollic reflex assessed by cervical vestibular-evoked myogenic potential: A preliminary investigation.

Listening to music through a portable personal music system (PMS) is a growing trend, especially among the youth. The preferred listening level in such kinds of PMS has been reported to cross the safe levels and its impact on the auditory system was demonstrated in several previous investigations. Owing to the commonality in several aspects between the auditory and the vestibular systems, it appears likely that the deleterious effects of PMS use could also be impinging on the vestibular system, which has never been investigated. The present study therefore, aimed at evaluating the effects of PMS use on the sacculocollic reflex assessed by the cervical vestibular-evoked myogenic potential (cVEMP) technique. Thirty-two regular PMS users and 32 nonregular PMS users underwent cVEMP testing using alternating polarity 500 Hz tone bursts. The results revealed no significant group difference in latencies and interaural asymmetry ratio. However, the cVEMP was significantly reduced in the group of individuals in whom the diffused field equivalent sound pressure levels (SPLs) were above the damage risk criteria (DRC) compared to those with diffused field equivalent SPLs below it (P < 0.01). Therefore, the use of PMS at high levels of volume controls could be deleterious to the vestibular well-being of an individual.

Changes in distortion product otoacoustic emission components after music exposure.

Young adults experience some type of recreational noise exposure on a daily basis; this includes using personal music (PM) systems with earphones. In most cases, this exposure is intermittent and the short-term effects of this exposure on the auditory system are becoming better understood. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of one hour of music exposure using a PM system on distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) absolute levels and generator and characteristic frequency (CF) component levels. Young adults (n = 101) between 18-30 years with normal hearing participated listened to one hour of music through earphones. A second group of young adults (n = 21) served as controls and did not listen to music, but sat in the sound-treated room for one hour. Otoscopy, tympanometry, and a hearing screening (≤20 dB HL at 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz) were completed in a randomly determined test ear. Preferred listening level, in dBA, was obtained and DPOAEs (2f1-f2) were measured between 1 and 6 kHz with stimulus levels fixed at L1,L2 = 55,40 dB SPL. Absolute DPOAE levels, along with generator and CF components levels were measured before and after each participant listened to one hour of music at their preferred level in a quiet setting. For data analyses, absolute DPOAE and generator and CF component levels were collapsed into 1/3rd octave bands centered around 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, and 6 kHz. Mean preferred listening level was 57.8 dBA, with males having a higher mean level of 61.1 dBA compared with females who had a mean level of 55.7 dBA. Females and males had negligible mean changes in absolute DPOAE levels at 1, 1.5, and 2 kHz, but males had 0.4-1 dB mean decreases after music at 3, 4, and 6 kHz compared to females, although not statistically significant. For DPOAE generator component data, females had small mean decreases for the two lower frequencies whereas males had mean decreases of 0.4-0.8 dB at 3, 4, and 6 kHz. Because of missing data, analyses of the CF component were limited, although females had small mean decreases at four frequencies while males had small mean decreases at two frequencies. There was no effect of listening to music on changes in DPOAEs but control participants had strong reliability (i.e., little or no change) after sitting in quiet for one hour. Young adults listened to music well below what would be considered hazardous. Because of the lower listening levels, DPOAEs showed very little change after music. Although there were no significant short-term changes in DPOAEs after music, the cumulative effect of this noise exposure is still unknown.

Gender, Music, and Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emission Components

The prevalence of personal music (PM) system use with earphones is high among young adults. Although previous research has demonstrated that the majority of these adults may not be listening at levels or for durations considered dangerous, the long-term consequences of PM system use are not fully understood. In this report the relationship between self-reported PM use (i.e., non, light, moderate, or heavy) and peripheral auditory function as assayed through distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) components and fine structure was explored. The purpose was to evaluate the relationship between PM system use and peripheral auditory function. One hundred and one (N = 101) young adults, 18 to 30 years of age, with normal hearing. Survey data were first obtained to determine PM system user status along with type of earphones used, most common listening volume, and most common listening duration. Once normal-hearing sensitivity was confirmed with a hearing screening, the DPOAE research protocol was administered. DPOAEs (2f1 to f2) were measured between 1 and 6 kHz with stimulus levels fixed at L1, L2 = 55,40 dB SPL and f2/f1 = 1.22. DPOAE level as well as fine-structure depth and spacing in 1/3rd octave (oct) bands around 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, and 6 kHz were compared across various PM system user groups. The ear-canal DPOAE was separated into the so-called generator and characteristic frequency (CF) components. The characteristics of the components were also compared across user groups. Almost all participants reported listening to a PM system between < 1 hr/d to 3 hr/d, and 67% of the participants reported medium/comfortable as the most common volume used during a typical day. There was no significant effect of user status on 3rd oct DPOAE data, 1/3rd oct band component data, or fine-structure spacing data. Women exhibited significantly higher DPOAE as well as generator and CF component levels in the lower half of the frequency range evaluated. There were no significant gender differences for fine-structure spacing or depth. The slope of the CF component was significantly steeper in women. In this cross-sectional study, there were no significant effects of self-reported PM use on either the ear-canal DPOAE or its constituent parts. Fine-structure depth varied across user groups in a nonsystematic manner. Women exhibited higher DPOAE and component levels in the lower portion of the frequency range evaluated. It is interesting to note that a greater proportion of men reported listening to their PM system at loud or very loud levels. The size of the effect relative to the sample size of each user group may be masking the deleterious effects of PM system use on the peripheral auditory system.

Personal Music Systems: Do They Pose Risk for Hearing Loss?

The proliferation of personal music systems in recent years raises concern because of the tremendous quantity of audio stimulation that users – especially children are exposed to. Hearing loss induced by personal music systems may evolve into a significant social and public health problem in future years. Currently, in our lab we are assessing the relationship among music listening habits of young adults, output sound pressure levels of different personal music systems and their effect on the auditory system, using behavioral and physiological measures. Our results show that about 66% of young adults listen to music using personal music systems for more than 1 hour a day. About 27% of these individuals report some kind of ontological problems. Measurement of output sound pressure levels of personal music system showed that about 20% of users listen to music at sufficiently high levels to cause permanent hearing loss. Pure tone audiogram and otoacoustic emissions revealed that listening to music through personal music system at preferred volume control settings did not result in “clinically significant” elevation of hearing thresholds or reduction of otoacoustic emissions amplitudes but caused subtle pre-clinical damage to the auditory system and over the years such behavior may be hazardous to hearing.

Output sound pressure levels of personal music systems and their effect on hearing

This study looked at output levels produced by new generation personal music systems (PMS), at the level of eardrum by placing the probe microphone in the ear canal. Further, the effect of these PMS on hearing was evaluated by comparing the distortion product otoacoustic emissions and high frequency pure tone thresholds (from 3 kHz to 12 kHz) of individuals who use PMS to that of age matched controls who did not use PMS. The relationship between output sound pressure levels and hearing measures was also evaluated. In Phase I output SPLs produced by the PMS were measured in three different conditions - a) at volume control setting that was preferred by the subjects in quiet b) at volume control setting that was preferred by the subject in presence of 65 dB SPL bus noise c) at maximum volume control settings of the instrument. In Phase II pure tone hearing thresholds and DPOAEs were measured. About 30% of individuals in a group of 70 young adults listened to music above the safety limits (80 dBA for 8 hours) prescribed by Ministry of Environment and Forests, India. Addition of bus noise did not increase the preferred volume control settings of the subjects significantly. There were no significant differences between the experimental and control groups for mean pure tone threshold and for mean DPOAE amplitude comparisons. However, a positive correlation between hearing thresholds and music levels and a negative correlation between DPOAE measures and music levels were found.

Don't Stand So Close to Me: The Effect of Auditory Input on Interpersonal Space

We provide preliminary evidence that listening to music through headphones alters the perception of space around the body -- specifically, the interpersonal distance maintained between the self and others. In comparison to an external auditory environment, wearing headphones or earplugs increased the amount of space maintained between the wearer and another person during an active approach paradigm. This finding suggests that, when external cues to spatial location (such as sound) are removed, people compensate by increasing the distance between themselves and others. The implications of this research for navigating busy urban environments and for the social interactions of wearers of personal music systems are discussed.

Young Adults’ Use and Output Level Settings of Personal Music Systems

There are growing concerns over noise exposure via personal music system use by young adults. One purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of personal music system use and the listening patterns associated with these systems in a large sample of young adults. A second purpose of this study was to measure the dB SPL in the ear canal of young adults while they blindly set the volume of a personal music system to four settings. In the first study, the personal music system use survey was completed by 1016 students at various locations on the San Diego State University campus. Questions included sex, age, ethnicity, race, and whether or not they used a personal music system. Students who answered Yes to using a personal music system were instructed to complete the remaining 11 closed-set questions. These questions dealt with type of earphones used with the system, most common listening environment, length of time per day the system was used, and the volume setting. The differences between women and men and across ethnicity and race were evaluated for the questions. In the second study, a probe microphone placed in the ear canal of 32 participants was used to determine the dB SPL of four loudness categories at which the participants blindly set the level of a personal music system: low, medium or comfortable, loud, and very loud. In study 1, over 90% of the participants who completed the survey reported using a personal music system. Over 50% of those who use a personal music system reported listening between 1 and 3 hrs and almost 90% reported listening at either a medium or loud volume. Men were significantly more likely to report listening to their system for a longer duration compared with women and more likely to report listening at a very loud volume. There was a trend for Hispanic or Latino students to report listening for longer durations compared with Not Hispanic or Latino students, but this difference was not statistically significant. Black or African American students were significantly more likely to report listening to their personal music system between 3 and 5 hrs and more than 5 hrs and to report listening at a very loud volume compared with other racial groups. In study 2, the mean dB SPL values for low, medium or comfortable, loud, and very loud were 62.0, 71.6, 87.7, and 97.8 dB SPL, respectively. Men set the level of very loud significantly higher than women. It is clear that a vast majority of young adults who completed the personal music system use survey listen to a system using earphones. Most of the respondents listen between 1 and 3 hrs a day at a medium or loud volume. Based on the probe microphone measurement results, the volume settings for reported durations may not be hazardous for hearing. Long-term use of personal music systems, however, in combination with other noise exposures (i.e., recreational, occupational), and their effect on hearing remains a question for additional research.

The Scientific Evaluation of Music Information Retrieval Systems: Foundations and Future

Computer Music Journal, 28:2, pp. 12–23, Summer 2004 2004 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Music Information Retrieval (MIR) is a multidisciplinary research endeavor that strives to develop innovative content-based searching schemes, novel interfaces, and evolving networked delivery mechanisms in an effort to make the world’s vast store of music accessible to all. Some teams are developing ‘‘Query-by-Singing’’ and ‘‘Query-by-Humming’’ systems that allow users to interact with their respective music search engines via queries that are sung or hummed into a microphone (e.g., Birmingham et al. 2001; Haus and Pollastri 2001). ‘‘Queryby-Note’’ systems are also being developed wherein searchers construct queries consisting of pitch and/or rhythm information (e.g., Pickens 2000; Doraisamy and Ruger 2002). Input methods for Queryby-Note systems include symbolic interfaces as well as both physical (MIDI) and virtual (Javabased) keyboards. Some teams are working on ‘‘Query-by-Example’’ systems that take prerecorded music in the form of CD or MP3 tracks as their query input (e.g., Haitsma and Kalker 2002; Harb and Chen 2003). The development of comprehensive music recommendation and distribution systems is a growing research area (e.g., Logan 2002; Pauws and Eggen 2002). The automatic generation of playlists for use in personal music systems, based on a wide variety of user-defined criteria, is the goal of this branch of MIR research. Other groups are investigating the creation of music analysis systems to assist those in the musicology and music theory communities (e.g., Barthelemy and Bonardi 2001; Kornstadt 2001). Overviews of MIR’s interdisciplinary research areas can be found in Downie (2003), Byrd and Crawford (2002), and Futrelle and Downie (2002). This article begins with an overview of the current scientific problem facing MIR research. Entitled ‘‘Current Scientific Problem,’’ the opening section also provides a brief explication of the Text Retrieval Conference (TREC) evaluation paradigm that has come to play an important role in the community’s thinking about the testing and evaluation of MIR systems. The sections which follow, entitled ‘‘Data Collection Method’’ and ‘‘Emergent Themes and Commentary,’’ report upon the findings of the Music Information Retrieval (MIR)/ Music Digital Library (MDL) Evaluation Frameworks Project with issues surrounding the creation of a TREC-like evaluation paradigm for MIR as the central focus. ‘‘Building a TREC-Like Test Collection’’ follows next and highlights the progress being made concerning the establishment of the necessary test collections. The ‘‘Summary and Future Research’’ section concludes this article and highlights some of the key challenges uncovered that require further investigation.

Smart clothing: The wearable computer and wearcam

Due to recent advances in miniaturization, the 'wearable computer' of the late 1970s and early 1980s, comprising a backpack-based, tetherless computer system together with wireless communications, has been transformed from an awkward and cumbersome burden into a completely unobtrusive internet-connected multimedia computer built within an ordinary pair of eyeglasses and ordinary clothing. This transformation allows it to be worn constantly, with the goal of becoming a seamless extension of the body and mind. In addition to replacing one's cellular telephone, personal music system, dictating machine, pager, camcorder, laptop computer, PDA, and the like with a single well-integrated unit, it can perform new and previously unexpected useful functions. Equipped with various sensors which measure heart rate (and waveform), respiration, footstep rate (and waveform), etc., the apparatus can function as a personal safety device for reducing crime, as well as a personal health monitor for improving health care by encouraging individuals to take an active role in diagnosis and body-maintenance. Presently, conductive cloth in various forms is available, due in part to certain people's desire to shield themselves from radiation effects of cellular telephones and the like, as well as for decorative purposes (the aesthetics of metallic fibres). The wearable computer is embedded within nontransparent clothing which provides shielding, (radiofrequency privacy, and solitude). Conductive fibres are also being used for the antenna structure, as well as for connectivity. Smart clothing has been proposed as a form of 'existential media', which defines new forms of social interaction through enhanced abilities for self expression and selfactualization, as well as through self-determination (see, for example Frankl i994). Examples of smart clothing include intemet-connected shoes (Fig. l) which allow one to run with a jogging partner located in some distant place, but connected via the network. Viewpoints might also be shared using the 'eye-to-eye' glasses (where a portion of each runner's visual field comes from the other runner (Mann 1994).