Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler Research Articles

Filtration efficiency of surgical and FFP3 masks against composite dust.

The aim of this study was to investigate the protection efficiency of two types of face masks against composite dust and to characterize the particles that penetrated through the masks. Composite dust was created by grinding a commercial nano-filled composite in a plexiglass box without using water cooling or high vacuum evacuation, in order to obtain a worst-case exposure. Dust particles were collected using a personal inhalable aerosol sampler (IOM) fixed inside a custom-made phantom head. Surgical and filtering facepiece (FFP3) masks were tested, and the situation without a mask served as control. The IOM sampler contained a cassette with two filters to collect large inhalable (4-100µm) and respirable dust particles (<4µm). The amount of particles was determined gravimetrically by weighing filters before and after composite grinding, and further characterized by electron microscopy. Particle collection for both inhalable and respirable dust was the highest when no mask was used, and the lowest with the use of a FFP3 mask. Different sizes and shapes of particles were observed, with the largest particles (>1µm) being seen when no mask was applied, whereas only nanoparticles could be detected when either type of face mask was applied. Even though FFP3 masks showed a higher filtration efficacy than surgical masks of the inhalable dust fraction, penetration of a small respirable particle fraction was inevitable for both masks.

Evaluation of personal inhalable aerosol samplers with different filters for use during anthrax responses

ABSTRACTRisk of inhalation exposure to viable Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis) spores has primarily been assessed using short-term, stationary sampling methods which may not accurately characterize the concentration of inhalable-sized spores reaching a person's breathing zone. While a variety of aerosol sampling methods have been utilized during previous anthrax responses, no consensus has yet been established for personal air sampling. The goal of this study was to determine the best sampler-filter combination(s) for the collection and extraction of B. anthracis spores. The study was designed to (1) evaluate the performance of four filter types (one mixed cellulose ester, MCE (pore size = 3 µm), two polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE (1 and 3 µm), and one polycarbonate, PC (3 µm)); and (2) evaluate the best performing filters in two commercially available inhalable aerosol samplers (IOM and Button). Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki [Bt(k)], a simulant for B. anthracis, served as the aerosol challenge. The filters were assessed based on criteria such as ability to maintain low pressure drop over an extended sampling period, filter integrity under various environmental conditions, spore collection and extraction efficiencies, ease of loading and unloading the filters into the samplers, cost, and availability. Three of the four tested collection filters—except MCE—were found suitable for efficient collection and recovery of Bt(k) spores sampled from dry and humid as well as dusty and clean air environments for up to 8 hr. The PC (3 µm) filter was identified as the best performing filter in this study. The PTFE (3 µm) demonstrated a comparable performance, but it is more expensive. Slightly higher concentrations were measured with the IOM inhalable sampler which is the preferred sampler's performance criterion when detecting a highly pathogenic agent with no established “safe” inhalation exposure level. Additional studies are needed to address the effects of environmental conditions and spore concentration. The data obtained in this investigation are crucial for future efforts on the development and optimization of a method for assessing inhalation exposure to B. anthracis.

Pesticide Flow Analysis to Assess Human Exposure in Greenhouse Flower Production in Colombia

Human exposure assessment tools represent a means for understanding human exposure to pesticides in agricultural activities and managing possible health risks. This paper presents a pesticide flow analysis modeling approach developed to assess human exposure to pesticide use in greenhouse flower crops in Colombia, focusing on dermal and inhalation exposure. This approach is based on the material flow analysis methodology. The transfer coefficients were obtained using the whole body dosimetry method for dermal exposure and the button personal inhalable aerosol sampler for inhalation exposure, using the tracer uranine as a pesticide surrogate. The case study was a greenhouse rose farm in the Bogota Plateau in Colombia. The approach was applied to estimate the exposure to pesticides such as mancozeb, carbendazim, propamocarb hydrochloride, fosetyl, carboxin, thiram, dimethomorph and mandipropamide. We found dermal absorption estimations close to the AOEL reference values for the pesticides carbendazim, mancozeb, thiram and mandipropamide during the study period. In addition, high values of dermal exposure were found on the forearms, hands, chest and legs of study participants, indicating weaknesses in the overlapping areas of the personal protective equipment parts. These results show how the material flow analysis methodology can be applied in the field of human exposure for early recognition of the dispersion of pesticides and support the development of measures to improve operational safety during pesticide management. Furthermore, the model makes it possible to identify the status quo of the health risk faced by workers in the study area.

Performance Study of Personal Inhalable Aerosol Samplers at Ultra-Low Wind Speeds

The assessment of personal inhalable aerosol samplers in a controlled laboratory setting has not previously been carried out at the ultra-low wind speed conditions that represent most modern workplaces. There is currently some concern about whether the existing inhalable aerosol convention is appropriate at these low wind speeds and an alternative has been suggested. It was therefore important to assess the performance of the most common personal samplers used to collect the inhalable aerosol fraction, especially those that were designed to match the original curve. The experimental set-up involved use of a hybrid ultra-low speed wind tunnel/calm air chamber and a rotating, heating breathing mannequin to measure the inhalable fraction of aerosol exposure. The samplers that were tested included the Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Button, and GSP inhalable samplers as well as the closed-face cassette sampler that has been (and still is) widely used by occupational hygienists in many countries. The results showed that, down to ∼0.2 m s(-1), the samplers matched the current inhalability criterion relatively well but were significantly greater than this at the lowest wind speed tested. Overall, there was a significant effect of wind speed on sampling efficiency, with lower wind speeds clearly associated with an increase in sampling efficiency.

Temporal and spatial variation of indoor and outdoor airborne fungal spores, pollen, and (1→3)-β-d-glucan

Characterizing the variation in bioaerosol concentrations is important for the estimation of health effects associated with bioaerosols and planning exposure assessment strategies. This investigation was conducted in order to develop a better understanding of exposure to fungal spores, pollen, and (1→3)-β-d-glucan, by determining the variations of their concentrations between and within homes. In the study, 24-h air sampling was performed on five consecutive days in four Cincinnati area homes. The samples (a total of 160) were taken simultaneously in four different rooms inside each home and at four different outside locations near the home using Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Samplers. The relative sizes of the between- and within-home variability to the total variability were calculated for each outcome. The relative sizes of the between- and within-home variability in indoor air ranged from 0.10 to 0.52 and 0.09 to 0.10, respectively. For outdoor air, the between- and within-home variability ranged from 0.27 to 0.50 and 0.09 to 0.10, respectively. Thus, the ranges of within-home variability, both indoors and outdoors, were much less than the variability between different homes. The results suggest that, if long-term sampling methods are employed to characterize the bioaerosol exposure for a population, the sampling should be repeated in a larger number of homes as an alternative to replicate sampling in a fewer number of homes. When characterizing exposure within one home, the sampling should be repeated in different rooms, rather than repeating it on different days.

High efficiency CIP 10-I personal inhalable aerosol sampler

The CIP 10 personal aerosol sampler was first developed by Courbon for sampling the respirable fraction of mining dust. This respirable aerosol sampler was further improved by Fabries, then selectors for sampling thoracic and inhalable aerosols were designed. Kenny et al. evaluated the particle-size dependent sampling efficiency of the inhalable version in a large-scale wind tunnel using a life-size dummy. The authors found that the overall sampling efficiency decreases more rapidly than the CEN-ISO-ACGIH target efficiency curve. Görner and Witschger measured the aspiration efficiency of the CIP 10 omni-directional inlet. They found that the aspiration efficiency was high enough for inhalable aerosol sampling. This result led to the conclusion that the low sampling efficiency is due to some internal losses of the aspirated particles before they reach the final sampling stage, namely the CIP 10 rotating filter. Based on the assumption that the inhalable particles are selected at selector aspiration level, an experimental research project was conducted to improve particle transmission to the collection stage of the sampler. Two different inhalable selectors were designed by Görner and tested in a laboratory wind tunnel. The transmission efficiency of both models was measured by Roger following an experimental protocol described by Witschger. The T-shaped air flow circuit was finally adopted to draw the aspirated particles into the final collection stage of the CIP 10. Actually, in this selector, the almost horizontally aspirated particles should be conducted vertically to the rotating cup. In two previous prototypes, particles could be deposited in certain places by inertia (where the aerosol was forced to deviate drastically) or by sedimentation (where the aerosol decelerated). The aerodynamic behaviour of the adopted solution causes the particles to accelerate radially between two horizontal plates before they enter a vertical tube. This acceleration avoids the particles being deposited on the lower horizontal plate. At the beginning of the vertical tubing, the mutually opposing particle trajectories limit particle wall deposition by virtual impaction effect. The inner selector walls are polished to avoid particles being stopped by eventual surface asperities. Particle size-dependent sampling efficiency was measured in the laboratory wind tunnel. The experimental aerosol was composed of polydisperse glass micro-spheres. The size analysis of the particles collected was done by the Coulter Counter technique. The transmission efficiency (reciprocal to wall losses) was found to be close to 100 % for the entire range of particle sizes, and indicated no particle loss. The overall sampling efficiency was measured using a rotating bluff body at an external wind speed of 1 m/s. The rotating bluff body represents a scaled torso of an operator. The "high efficiency" CIP 10-I (I for inhalable) responds fairly well to the conventional CEN-ISO-ACGIH criteria for sampling the inhalable health-related aerosol fraction.

Experimental methods to determine inhalability and personal sampler performance for aerosols in ultra-low windspeed environments

Most previous experiments of aerosol inhalability as it relates to particle aerodynamic diameter were conducted in wind tunnels for windspeeds greater than 0.5 m s(-1). While that body of work was used to establish an inhalable aerosol convention, results from studies in calm air chambers (for essentially zero windspeed) are being discussed as the basis of a modified criterion. Meanwhile, however, information is lacking for windspeeds in the intermediate range, which--it so happens--pertain to most actual workplaces. With this in mind, we have developed a new experimental system to assess inhalability and personal sampler performance for aerosols with particle aerodynamic diameter within the range from 6 to 90 microm for ultra-low windspeed environments from about 0.1 to 0.5 m s(-1). In this range of conditions for particle size and windspeed, controlled aerosol experiments are very difficult to perform, most notably with respect to the problem of achieving uniform spatial distributions of both test aerosols and air velocity. In the work reported in this paper, we have addressed these difficulties in a new, custom-designed experimental facility. It is a novel wind tunnel design that provides stable and controllable low-turbulence air movement, and allows for the delivery of test aerosol to the working section both from upstream (as in conventional wind tunnel experiments) and from above (as in calm air studies). In this system, losses by elutriation of particles that are being convected in the horizontal aerosol flow are compensated by particles entering from above by gravitational settling. An important feature of the new facility is the life-size, breathing mannequin that contains physical means to achieve any combination of mouth and nasal inspiration and expiration, and allows any desired relevant breathing flowrate and pattern by means of an external computer-controlled breathing simulator. Special steps were taken in the detailed design to ensure that particles may be collected during the inspiration phase of the breathing cycle and that the air during the expiration phase re-enters the breathing zone through a separate pathway (in order to avoid re-entrainment of collected particles). The mannequin itself was heated (to body temperature) to allow for the possibility that, at such low windspeeds, the overall air movement may be influenced by updrafts associated with the enhanced buoyancy of warm air near the body of the mannequin. The new experimental system has been commissioned and calibrated. Experiments have been carried out to determine the role of expired air and body heat on the time-dependent flow near the mannequin which might be expected to influence the transport, and hence inhalation, of particles. These show that such effects may be expected for some parts of the ranges of conditions studied. Preliminary experiments have been carried out to assess the aspiration efficiency of the human head. The successful development of this novel experimental facility paves the way for an important new series of experiments to evaluate inhalability under realistic workplace conditions, along with assessments of the performance of personal inhalable aerosol samplers.

Relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne fungal spores, pollen, and (1→3)-β-D-glucan in homes without visible mold growth

In this exploratory study, indoor and outdoor airborne fungal spores, pollen, and (1→3)-β-D-glucan levels were determined through long-term sampling (24-h) using a Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler. The air samples were collected in five Cincinnati area homes that had no visible mold growth. The total count of fungal spores and pollen in the collected samples was conducted under the microscope and Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) chromogenic assay method was utilized for the determination of the (1→3)-β-D-glucan concentration. For the combined number concentration of fungal spores and pollen, the indoor and outdoor geometric mean values were 573 and 6,435 m−3, respectively, with a geometric mean of the Indoor/Outdoor (I/O) ratio of .09. The geometric means of indoor and outdoor (1→3)-β-D-glucan concentrations were .92 and 6.44 ng m−3, respectively, with a geometric mean of the I/O ratio equal to .14. The I/O ratio of (1→3)-β-D-glucan concentration was found to be marginally greater than that calculated based on the combined number concentration of fungal spores and pollen. This suggests that (1→3)-β-D-glucan data are affected not only by intact spores and pollen grains but also by the airborne fragments of fungi, pollen, and plant material, which are ignored by traditional enumeration methodologies. Since the (1→3)-β-D-glucan level may elucidate the total exposure to fungal spores, pollen, and fungal fragments, its I/O ratio may be used as a risk marker for mold and pollen exposure in indoor environments.

Culturability and concentration of indoor and outdoor airborne fungi in six single-family homes

In this study, the culturability of indoor and outdoor airborne fungi was determined through long-term sampling (24-h) using a Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler. The air samples were collected during three seasons in six Cincinnati area homes that were free from moisture damage or visible mold. Cultivation and total microscopic enumeration methods were employed for the sample analysis. The geometric means of indoor and outdoor culturable fungal concentrations were 88 and 102 colony-forming units (CFU) m −3, respectively, with a geometric mean of the I/ O ratio equal to 0.66. Overall, 26 genera of culturable fungi were recovered from the indoor and outdoor samples. For total fungal spores, the indoor and outdoor geometric means were 211 and 605 spores m −3, respectively, with a geometric mean of I/ O ratio equal to 0.32. The identification revealed 37 fungal genera from indoor and outdoor samples based on the total spore analysis. Indoor and outdoor concentrations of culturable and total fungal spores showed significant correlations ( r = 0.655 , p<0.0001 and r = 0.633 , p<0.0001, respectively). The indoor and outdoor median viabilities of fungi were 55% and 25%, respectively, which indicates that indoor environment provides more favorable survival conditions for the aerosolized fungi. Among the seasons, the highest indoor and outdoor culturability of fungi was observed in the fall. Cladosporium had a highest median value of culturability (38% and 33% for indoor and outdoor, respectively) followed by Aspergillus/Penicillium (9% and 2%) among predominant genera of fungi. Increased culturability of fungi inside the homes may have important implications because of the potential increase in the release of allergens from viable spores and pathogenicity of viable fungi on immunocompromised individuals.

Testing personal inhalable aerosol samplers: a suggested improved protocol based on new scientific knowledge

In 2002 the Comité Européen Normalisation (CEN) published its document Workplace atmospheres-assessment of performance of instruments for measurement of airborne particle concentrations (EN 13205) that describes a standard protocol by which to carry out the testing and validation of personal aerosol samplers of the type widely used for occupational aerosol exposure assessment. It emerged from more than a decade of discussion and a large body of research experience involving several laboratories. The protocol that is described, however, still poses significant technical and economic challenges, not least because it involves laborious-and hence costly-procedures in large, specialized wind tunnel facilities. More recent research has identified a number of areas by which the protocol may be improved and made more accessible to testing laboratories, including a set of validated aerosol sampler scaling laws, a better understanding of the reduced role of the bluff body of the wearer on sampler performance, and the availability of new options for rapid sampler testing methods. Taking these into account, a dummy new protocol is offered for discussion.

Performance of personal inhalable aerosol samplers in very slowly moving air when facing the aerosol source.

While personal aerosol samplers have been characterized primarily based on wind tunnel tests conducted at relatively high wind speeds, modern indoor occupational environments are usually represented by very slow moving air. Recent surveys suggest that elevated levels of occupational exposure to inhalable airborne particles are typically observed when the worker, operating in the vicinity of the dust source, faces the source. Thus, the first objective of this study was to design and test a new, low cost experimental protocol for measuring the sampling efficiency of personal inhalable aerosol samplers in the vicinity of the aerosol source when the samplers operate in very slowly moving air. In this system, an aerosol generator, which is located in the centre of a room-sized non-ventilated chamber, continuously rotates and omnidirectionally disperses test particles of a specific size. The test and reference samplers are equally distributed around the source at the same distance from the centre and operate in parallel (in most of our experiments, the total number of simultaneously operating samplers was 15). Radial aerosol transport is driven by turbulent diffusion and some natural convection. For each specific particle size and the sampler, the aerosol mass concentration is measured by weighing the collection filter. The second objective was to utilize the new protocol to evaluate three widely used aerosol samplers: the IOM Personal Inhalable Sampler, the Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler and the 25 mm Millipore filter holder (closed-face C25 cassette). The sampling efficiencies of each instrument were measured with six particle fractions, ranging from 6.9 to 76.9 micro m in their mass median aerodynamic diameter. The Button Sampler efficiency data demonstrated a good agreement with the standard inhalable convention and especially with the low air movement inhalabilty curve. The 25 mm filter holder was found to considerably under-sample the particles larger than 10 micro m; its efficiency did not exceed 7% for particles of 40-100 micro m. The IOM Sampler facing the source was found to over-sample compared with the data obtained previously with a slowly rotating, freely suspended sampler in a low air movement environment. It was also found that the particle wall deposition in the IOM metallic cartridge was rather significant and particle size-dependent. For each sampler (IOM, Button and C25) the precision was characterized through the relative standard deviation (RSD) of the aerosol concentration obtained with identical samplers in a specific experiment. The average RSD was 14% for the IOM Sampler, 11% for the Button Sampler and 35% for the 25 mm filter cassette. A separate set of experiments, performed with the Simplified Torso showed that in very slowly moving air a personal sampler can be adequately evaluated even when it is not attached to a body but freely suspended (confirming the data reported previously).

Limitations of monoclonal antibodies for monitoring of fungal aerosols using Penicillium brevicompactum as a model fungus

Molds are ubiquitous in every environment and many species have been recently associated with an increase in opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients or the exacerbation of asthmatic episodes in allergic patients. The degree of environmental contamination with fungi thus needs to be monitored and in this study we report the development of a monoclonal antibody (mAb)-mediated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of spores of Penicillium brevicompactum in experimental model aerosols. In addition, we have investigated the influence of different parameters of air sampling and sample recovery on ELISA performance. MAbs were produced with standard hybridoma techniques and cross-reactivities were determined against spores of 53 fungal species by indirect ELISA. Standardized experimental fungal aerosols were collected with the Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler® onto polycarbonate or polytetrafluoroethylene filters (PTFE) and the effects of different extraction buffers and filter agitation methods during sample processing on spore recovery and ELISA detection were investigated. Five mAbs were produced and all of them cross-reacted with several of 31 related Aspergillus, Penicillium and Eurotium species. However, cross-reactivities with 21 non-related fungi were rare. Spores were recovered in much higher numbers from polycarbonate filters (PFs) than from polytetrafluoroethylene filters. Optical densities (ODs) in ELISA were higher for spores collected into carbonate coating buffer (CCB) than phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Filter bath sonication following filter vortexing had no positive effects on ELISA sensitivity. The cross-reactivity patterns of mAbs suggest that Aspergillus and Penicillium species share multiple antigens. Quantitative ELISA results for fungal aerosols were found to be influenced by differential sample processing and thus method standardization will be essential to maintain the comparability of immunometric monitoring results.

Performance of the Button Personal Inhalable Sampler for the measurement of outdoor aeroallergens

No personal aerosol sampler has been evaluated for monitoring aeroallergens in outdoor field conditions and comparedto conventional stationary aerobiological samplers. Recently d evelopedButton Personal Inhalable Aerosol Sampler has demonstrated high sampling efficiency for non-biological particles and low sensitivity to the wind direction and velocity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the Button Sampler for the measurement of outdoor pollen grains and fungal spores side-by-side with the widely used Rotorod Sampler. The sampling was performed for 8 months (spring, summer andfall) at a monitoring station on the roof of a two-storiedoffice building locatedin the center of the city of Cincinnati. Two identical Button Samplers, one oriented towards the most prevalent wind and the other towards the opposite wind and a Rotorod Sampler were placed side-by-side. The total fungal spore concentration ranged from 129 to 12,980 spores m � 3 (number per cubic meter of air) andthe total pollen concentration from 4 to 4536 pollen m � 3 . The fungal spore concentrations obtainedwith the two Button Samplers correlatedwell ( r ¼ 0:95; po0:0001). The pollen data also showed positive correlation. These findings strongly support the results of earlier studies conducted with non-biological aerosol particles, which demonstrated a low wind dependence of the performance of the Button Sampler compared to other samplers. The Button Sampler’s inlet efficiency was found to be more dependent on wind direction when sampling larger sized Pinaceae pollen grains (aerodynamic diameter E65mm). Comparedto Rotorod , both Button Samplers measuredsignificantly higher total fungal spore concentrations. For total pollen count, the Button Sampler facing the prevalent windshowedconcentrations levels comparable to that of the Rotorod , but the Button Sampler orientedopposite to the prevalent windd emonstratedlower concentration levels. Overall, it was concluded that the Button Sampler is efficient for the personal sampling of outdoor aeroallergens, and is especially beneficial for aeroallergens of small particle size. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Relationship between lead levels on painted surfaces and percent lead in the particles aerosolized during lead abatement.

Quantifying airborne lead on lead abatement work sites is critical in assessing worker lead exposures. Airborne lead levels depend on both the concentration of aerosolized particles and the percent lead in those particles. The lead level on the painted surface being abated may affect the percent lead in aerosolized particles. Experiments were performed in the University of Cincinnati Environmental Test Chamber (volume approximately 24.3 m3) using wood doors painted with lead-based paint. Three methods were used for paint removal: dry scraping, wet scraping, and dry machine sanding. Particles aerosolized during lead abatement activities were collected on filters using the Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Samplers (SKC Inc., Eighty Four, PA) mounted in the workers' breathing zone. The filters were subsequently analyzed for percent lead in the particles. A portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument (NITON-700, NITON Inc., Bedford, MA) was used to measure surface lead levels of the doors. The accuracy of the XRF instrument was verified by testing standard reference materials prepared by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and by Princeton Gamma Tech Inc. It was also verified by relating XRF results from painted door surfaces to laboratory lead analysis data obtained from paint chip samples taken from the same painted surfaces (r2 = 0.81, p < 0.001). A highly significant relationship (r2 = 0.83, p < 0.001) was found between the XRF readings and the percent lead in the particles aerosolized during dry scraping. No significant relationship was found for wet scraping (r2 = 0.09, p = 0.56) or dry machine sanding (r2 = 0.002, p = 0.92). The relationship between surface lead levels and percent lead in particles was found to be dependent on the paint removal method. This variation was attributed to the difference in water absorption property of the paint layers and the different particle aerosolization mechanisms inherent in each paint removal method.

A Numerical Study of the Performance of an Aerosol Sampler with a Curved, Blunt, Multi-Orificed Inlet

The purpose of this study was to numerically simulate the performance of an aerosol sampler with a curved, blunt, multi-orificed inlet in order to understand the sampling characteristics of the first prototype of the button personal inhalable aerosol sampler (button sampler). Because the button sampler inlet design is too complicated to apply a three-dimensional model, an axisymmetric two-dimensional model was created to be similar in geometry and to simulate the major features of the airflow through the sampler when facing the wind. Particle trajectories were calculated in a variety of wind velocities and were categorized into 5 groups based on their interactions with the curved surface of the sampling plane. Empirical sampling efficiencies of the button sampler for 3 particle sizes were used to adjust the calculated sampling efficiencies in an attempt to improve the accuracy of the two-dimensional axisymmetric model in accounting for interactions between particles and the surface of the inlet of the b...

New experimental methods for the development and evaluation of aerosol samplers.

An understanding of the scaling laws governing aerosol sampler performance leads to new options for testing aerosol samplers at small scale in a small laboratory wind tunnel. Two methods are described in this paper. The first involves an extension of what is referred to as the "conventional" approach, in which scaled aerosol sampler systems are tested in a small wind tunnel while exposed to relatively monodisperse aerosols. Such aerosols are collected by test and reference samplers respectively and assessed gravimetrically. The new studies were carried out for a modified, low flowrate version of the IOM personal inhalable aerosol sampler. It was shown that such experiments can be carried out with a very high level of repeatability, and this supported the general validity of the aerosol sampler scaling laws. The second method involves a novel testing system and protocol for evaluating the performances of aerosol samplers. Here, scaled aerosol samplers of interest are exposed to polydisperse aerosols, again in a small wind tunnel. In this instance, the sampled particles are counted and sized using a direct-reading aerodynamic particle sizer (the APS). A prototype automated aerosol sampler testing system based on this approach was built and evaluated in preliminary experiments to determine the performance of another modified version of the IOM personal inhalable aerosol sampler. The design of the new test system accounts for the complex fluid mechanical coupling that occurs near the sampler inlet involving the transition between the external flow outside the sampler and the internal airflow inside the sampler, leading in turn to uncontrolled particle losses. The problem was overcome by the insertion of porous plastic foam plugs. where the penetration characteristics are well understood, into the entries of both the test and the reference samplers. Preliminary experiments with this new system also supported the general validity of the aerosol sampler scaling laws. In addition, they demonstrated high potential that this approach may be applied in a standardised aerosol testing method and protocol.

Particle size and chemical species 'fingerprinting' of aerosols in primary nickel production industry workplaces.

A field study was conducted at a range of worksites at a number of plants, for two companies, in the primary nickel production industry. The aim of the field study was to provide direct measurements of the distributions of both particle size and relevant nickel species groups (soluble, sulfidic, metallic and oxidic). and to use the data to characterize health-relevant aerosol exposures of workers at the worksites in question. Since there was no commercially-available sampler that could provide samples of sufficient quantity to enable chemical speciation for the species fractions of interest, as well as particle size distribution information, new instrumentation was developed, based on a modified version of the Andersen cascade impactor, incorporating a porous foam media top stage that produced particle classification over the upper end of the inhalable range (Kerr, Vincent and Ramachandran, Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 2001, in the press). This modified-Andersen sampler was used in extensive field studies, along with other sampling instruments, including, in particular, the IOM personal inhalable aerosol sampler. The results of the field study provided results that could be represented succinctly in terms of the distributions of the four nickel species groups and the three health-related particle-size fractions: inhalable, thoracic and respirable. They showed that, for practical purposes, the distributions of the four nickel species groups were consistently uniform across the full range of particle-size distribution. For the purpose of characterizing the distribution of nickel species for each worksite, this finding enabled incorporation of additional data taken at those same sites using the IOM personal inhalable aerosol sampler. This yielded a data set sufficient to permit the development of exposure 'fingerprints' for each worksite. Such 'fingerprints' make it possible for the occupational hygienists at the plants in question to estimate workers' exposure to individual nickel species fractions based on measurement only of overall inhalable nickel. In addition, by reference to the differing threshold limit values (TLV) for the various nickel species, the 'fingerprints' also allow the individual worksites to be characterized by hazard indices (in the form of 'equivalent sulfidic fractions', or ESFs) that reflect the weightings of the risks experienced by workers at each worksite.

Health-risk assessment for workers exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a carbon black manufacturing industry

This study was established to assess workers’ health-risks posed by PAHs exposures via both routes of inhalation and dermal contact. Personal inhalation exposure sampling was conducted on eight wet pelletizing workers and 22 packaging workers, by using a sampling train comprising an IOM personal inhalable aerosol sampler followed by an XAD-2 sorbent tube. Two workers were randomly selected from both exposure groups, and dermal exposures assessed by using soft polypropylene pads attached to the skin for nine different body surface areas for each selected worker. All personal inhalation and dermal samples were analyzed for 21 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) species, and then converted to benzo[ a]pyrene equivalent (BaP eq) concentrations by using the list of toxic equivalent factors (TEFs) suggested by Nisbet and LaGoy [Regul Toxicol Pharmocol 16 (1992) 290]. The resultant inhalation and dermal BaP eq exposure levels were used to estimate lifetime risks for lung cancer and skin cancer by using the BaP unit risks of 7.0×10 −2 (μg/m 3) −1 and 37.47(mg/kg bodyweight/day) −1, respectively. Results show the personal inhalation BaP eq exposure levels for pelletizing and packaging workers were 622 and 774 ng/m 3, respectively. The corresponding lifetime lung cancer risks estimated for both exposure groups were 4.35×10 −2 and 5.42×10 −2, respectively. For dermal exposures, results show personal dermal BaP eq exposure levels for both exposure groups were 0.664 and 0.847 μg/kg per day, respectively. The corresponding estimated lifetime skin cancer risks were 1.13×10 −3 and 1.56×10 −3, respectively. Although the estimated skin cancer risks were lower than the corresponding lung cancer risks for both exposure groups, however, both were higher than the designated significant risk level (=10 −3) which was defined by the US Supreme Court in 1980. Considering the bioavailability of particle-bound PAHs still remains unknown, the health risks obtained from this study could be overestimated and thus require further investigation.

Characteristics of Exposure Profiles for Workers Exposed to Airborne Dusts and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Carbon Black Manufacturing Industry

Characteristics of Exposure Profiles for Workers Exposed to Airborne Dusts and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Carbon Black Manufacturing Industry: Perng‐Jy Tsai, et al. Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Medical College, National Cheng Kung University—This study was aimed at characterizing the exposure profiles for carbon black manufacturing workers. Personal sampling was conducted on 8 wet pelletizing workers and 22 packaging workers. A sampling train consisted of an IOM personal inhalable aerosol sampler (to collect airborne dusts and their inherent particle‐bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)), and an XAD‐2 sorbent tube (to collect gaseous PAHs) was used. For PAHs analyses, 21 PAH species were analyzed by using the gas chromatograph/mass technique. In addition, size segregating sampling was conducted at both workplaces, by using both the Micro‐orifice Uniform Deposited Impactors (MOUDI) and the Noll Rotary Impactor (NRI) simultaneously to characterize the particle size distributions exposure to both exposure groups. Results show that the packaging workers had a higher dust exposure level (arithmetic mean=1.17 mg/m3) than the pelletizing workers (arithmetic mean=0.82 mg/m3). Although both levels were lower than the time‐weighted‐average threshold limit value (TLV‐TWA) of 3.5 mg/m3 of ACGIH, about 7.48% of the packaging workers were estimated to be above the limit value. A significant amount of gaseous PAHs was also found in personal exposure, especially BaP and PER in the gaseous phase were similar to those found in the particle‐bound phase. Exposure to particle‐bound PAHs was considered due to the releasing of carbon black dusts during the pelletizing and packaging processes, but for gaseous PAHs, it might be due to the emission of gaseous PAHs from the feedstock oil unloading process rather than the stack flue gas. The above findings suggest that both gaseous and particle‐bound PAHs are equally important in assessing exposure of carbon black industry workers. Size distributions, including both airborne dusts and particle‐bound PAHs, collected from both areas were found in the form of bimodality. No statistical difference could be found between the airborne dust size distribution and the corresponding particle‐bound PAH size distribution in the two areas, which suggests that workers in both areas might be exposed to similar types of airborne dust that contain similar PAH compositions.

Evaluation of personal aerosol samplers challenged with large particles

The Simplified Test Protocol, developed in our earlier studies for testing personal inhalable aerosol samplers, was evaluated in a specially designed small open-section, close-loop wind tunnel. The sampling efficiencies of three personal inhalable aerosol samplers (IOM, GSP, and Button Aerosol Sampler) were measured with 65 μm particles, using the Simplified Test Protocol at four inlet orientations to the wind ( 0, 90, 180 , and 270°). The results were compared with the data collected from other evaluation approaches. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has shown that there is no statistically significant difference in the samplers’ performance when they are tested in the small and large wind tunnels following the Simplified Test Protocol and in the large wind tunnel following the conventional approach (samplers on a full-size human manikin). Thus, the Simplified Test Protocol has been shown to be suitable for the performance evaluation of personal inhalable aerosol samplers. The new wind tunnel facility was also found useful for handling very large particles, which is a considerable advantage over traditional wind tunnels. Our new wind tunnel was successfully used to measure the sampling efficiencies of the IOM, GSP, and Button Aerosol Sampler when challenged with particles of up to approximately 250 μm aerodynamic diameter at wind velocities of 50 and 100 cm s −1 . The data show that the sampling efficiency of the IOM sampler depends significantly on the wind velocity and is above 100% for particles of 165 and 241 μm mass median aerodynamic diameter. This dependence is not statistically significant for the GSP and Button Aerosol Sampler, whose sampling efficiencies are similar to each other and do not change with increasing test particle size at the indicated wind velocities. Also, the sampling efficiencies of the GSP and Button Aerosol Sampler closely follow the independent data obtained by using a breathing and rotating manikin at a wind velocity of 100 cm s −1 . The new wind tunnel design is expected to enhance the ability to extend the inhalable convention beyond 100 μm .