Person-centered Therapists Research Articles

The Dao of Dialogue: Daoism, Psychology, and Psychotherapy

Abstract: From analytical psychologist Carl Jung's exploration of internal alchemy through humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow's plea for a more Taoistic Science to pioneering person-centered therapist Carl Rogers's embrace of nonaction, Daoist teachings have played a consistent, subtle but significant part in shaping popular approaches in psychology and psychotherapy. Contemporary cognitive therapies are increasingly informed by Daoist principles and cultivation practices—including the emergence of Chinese Taoist Cognitive Psychotherapy. In this paper, I outline the past, present and future of this cross-cultural dialogue, in addition to reflecting on my own Daoist encounters and inspirations that have led to my pursuit of more transpersonal and ecological approaches and insights. Our current global predicament is largely the result of a prevalent, insidious, largely unquestioned anthropocentric mindset, which reduces the natural world to natural resources. It is my firm conviction that a more Daoist-based worldview may prove to be a potent antidote to this detrimental, default way of thinking and more vital than ever when faced with impending climate crises and catastrophe—bridging the psychological, ecological and soteriological.

Congruent functioning: the continuing resonance of Rogers’ theory

ABSTRACT Based on a keynote speech at the PCE 2022 conference, this paper responds to the conference theme “How can I be of help?” from the perspective of person-centered therapy. I focus on the kind of help (i.e. the kind of change, or outcome) that clients can expect when participating in person-centered therapy through the lens of “congruent functioning”, a contemporary reframing of Rogers’ concept of the fully functioning person. This model of congruent functioning was developed from an ongoing research program originally focused on the study of a brief self-report instrument, the Strathclyde Inventory (SI). In this paper, I report findings from this program, including a theoretically coherent hierarchical relationship between SI items identified from the pattern of clients’ scoring that may indicate a hypothetical pathway for the development of congruent functioning. I present three different types of supporting evidence for the congruent functioning model, highlighting potential cultural differences, and a case example that considers apparent deterioration in congruent functioning by the end of therapy. Finally, I argue that the model of congruent functioning resonates not only with Rogers’ theory concerning the change process underpinning person-centered therapy, but also supports the ongoing commitment to personal development required of person-centered therapists.

Encountering sexuality difference: the experiences of person-centered counselors and psychotherapists who self-describe as heterosexual and have worked with lesbian, gay, bisexual and queer clients

ABSTRACT Lesbian, gay, bisexual and queer people (LGBQ; a sexual minority social group) access counseling and psychotherapy more frequently than heterosexual people, often working with heterosexual therapists (a sexual majority social group). Heterosexual therapists working with LGBQ clients is under-researched which means limited dialogue exists describing a significant yet sensitive area of sexuality difference where therapist and client hold diverging social experiences. To facilitate awareness development in person-centered therapy and beyond, the paper seeks to challenge such limited dialogue, stimulating discussion through considering how four heterosexual person-centered therapists experience working with LGBQ clients. This qualitative research project was designed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis as its methodology to explore the experiences of four heterosexual person-centered therapists who work with LGBQ clients. Findings centered upon four themes: shaping and forming, ways of seeing, witnessing clients and relationships with person-centered theory. The discussion considered the data in dialogue with person-centered theory, explored phenomenological therapy practice, intersectionality, power, and witnessing client experiences of social discrimination, and evaluated the non-pathologizing therapeutic potential that person-centered phenomenological practice holds for working with LGBQ clients. For theory development, the paper calls for further person-centered discourse exploring LGBQ experiencing.

On becoming a person-centered therapist: the effect of the process of “becoming” on the person’s self-concept

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to explore how someone perceives the process of becoming a person-centered therapist, and if (and in what way) the person-centered approach changes their self-concept during this process. Six person-centered therapists were interviewed about the way they experienced their process of ‘becoming’, the way they perceive their self-concept with regard to this process, and how this perception changed during their training and practice. These semi-structured interviews were analyzed using Interpretative-Phenomenological Analysis. Four main themes were identified: perceiving themselves through the process of becoming a person-centered therapist, experiencing themselves as clients, relating to significant others, and comparing and differentiating person-centered therapy and other approaches.

Protocol: a qualitative linguistic framework for analysing empathic and empowering communications in classical person-centered therapeutic interactions

ABSTRACT Empathy and empowerment are crucial person-centered therapeutic processes that are interrelated and co-constructed in discourse by therapist-client dyads. Recently, research recommendations have been made for linguistic analyses of therapeutic processes. The interrelatedness of processes has often been overlooked when these recommendations have been progressed. Research so far has also tended to favor therapist discourse instead of focusing on the co-construction of processes. The publication of protocols enables researchers and therapists to access information about emerging research. Protocol publication can reduce dissemination bias and promotes credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative methodologies. The proposed development and application of a linguistic framework for analyzing empathic and empowering communications by therapist-client dyads in person-centered therapy is described in this protocol. The present status of the study is given, including why and how hybrid linguistic features identified in discourse analysis, pragmatics, and conversation analytic approaches are included. Information about the therapeutic transcripts used as data for framework development is also given for illustrative purposes. The anticipated theoretical and methodological contributions of this research are summarized. Suggested applications of the research outcomes for practice are also described, including their usefulness for trainee person-centered therapists, or for person-centered therapists or researchers who are interested in linguistic methodologies.

Thrice over the fire: some reflections on contact, culture, context, and whiteness

ABSTRACT This article aims to provoke thinking about whiteness, culture and identity in relation to psychotherapy practice. The writing concludes with a poem that situates the author within an enriched environment that includes her ancestors and cultural heritage. Poetry illuminates hard to reach places, surfacing lived experiences that might otherwise hide in their everydayness. For the white therapist a poetic imagination might bring whiteness forth from invisibility, laying it bare for closer inspection, facilitating greater understandings and openness. The author, a white therapist and researcher, uses poetic inquiry, to foster an enhanced cultural awareness with a view to seeing self and ‘other’ afresh. The article invites the white person-centered therapist to engage with their own self-understandings to facilitate enhanced cultural engagement, sensitivity and awareness.

The development of congruence: a thematic analysis of person-centered counselors’ perspectives

ABSTRACT According to the person-centered theory of therapy, the therapist’s congruence is one of the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic personality change. However, the development of therapists’ congruence has received limited research attention. This study was designed to explore the ways in which eight experienced person-centered therapists fostered their congruence. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews. Analysis of the data was based on the qualitative method of thematic analysis. The research findings yielded four main themes, along with a number of sub-themes, which reflected the ways in which these person-centered therapists enhanced, and continue to enhance, their congruence. These are: a life-lasting ongoing process, the importance of constant care, the role of relationships, and being in contact. The findings suggest that the development of congruence is a gradual process closely related to the lifelong personal and professional growth of therapists and that it needs active and constant care on multiple levels. The findings highlight the importance of personal and professional relationships in nurturing congruence and point to the necessity of a person-centered therapist being in contact with his or her self and the client. This study has important implications in the literature, training, and practice of person-centered therapists.

Foucauldian discourse analysis (FDA) and the person-centered approach (PCA): a discourse, with a special focus on the gender paradigm

ABSTRACT This paper discusses the possible contributions of the Foucauldian discourse analysis (FDA) to the exploration of the person-centered approach (PCA) hence relating Michel Foucault to Carl Rogers. Different paths lead us to similar forms of understanding concerning meaning, discourses, subjective experience, personal power, self-actualization, epimeleia heautou (care of the self), parrhesia and eventually, history as ethics and process. Discourse analysis which focuses on language constitutes a privileged field for this consideration. More precisely, FDA proposes a crucial methodological tool to meet and evaluate possible constructions of PCA as a therapeutic approach in theory and practice. In association with them, gender construction is durable and always present. Therefore, we use a research study having as reference the gender construction by person-centered therapists in order to implement a concrete apprehension of the methodological significance of FDA considering PCA in theory and practice.

Stories of belonging: from the national to the personal. Based on the workshop drawing ourselves, drawing our country: from Greek specificities to a globalizing Dialogue (PCE 2018 Conference, Vienna, 8-12 July 2018)

ABSTRACT In the 21st century, the push and pull between localism and globalization define competing discourses. Social and political identities serve as external supports to a ‘symbolic universe’, a sense of belonging. Yet, today, social representations of an imagined homogeneous national entity are being challenged by mass immigration, refugee crisis and competing models of a global village. Within Person-Centered community discussions on diversity and identity, centering on both the client and the therapist is not uncommon. In our workshops and seminars about the representations of national identities of therapists and more precisely of Greek therapists, we have noted that there is an intense need for therapists to be aware of their own national identities in relation to discourses, stories as emotional narratives and hope for new national identities. As Greek and Person-Centered therapists, in becoming aware of and examining our own personal national narratives, we hope to begin to be active agents through the discussion of a global ethical community, a global politeia.

Using therapeutic contracts in person-centered counseling and psychotherapy: the perspectives of experienced Greek person-centered therapists

ABSTRACTThe therapeutic contract is an important aspect of the counseling process. However, it has received limited research interest, especially in the person-centered community. The objective of this qualitative study was to examine the perceptions and use of therapeutic contracts of seven experienced, person-centered therapists in Greece. A grounded theory design was chosen to guide the analysis of the data that were collected through semi-structured interviews. The emergent theoretical model was conceptualized as a system organized around the core category of ‘Forming a Safe – Attuned Framework’, which included the key-categories ‘Coordination game’, ‘Boundary setting’, and ‘Equal relationship’. Data analysis also revealed the contextual input of the ‘Therapist’s characteristics’ and the contextual output of the ‘Client consequences’. The emergent theory suggests that experienced person-centered therapists utilize therapeutic contracts in the first session with a new client in order to create a safe environment in which they can work cooperatively and develop their relationship. This process is guided by specific characteristics of the therapists (e.g. their sense of professional identity), and leads to various positive consequences for clients (e.g. facilitating their personal freedom). The study has important implications for practicing professionals, as well as for the training of new person-centered therapists.

‘Being able to take that mask off’: adolescent clients’ experiences of power in person-centered therapy relationships

ABSTRACTPerson-centered therapy aims to help clients actualize their own power. When working with adolescents, the developmental needs of the client and the power difference between client and therapist may present additional barriers to this. This study sought to understand the power dynamics of the therapy relationship from the adolescent client’s perspective. Seven adolescent clients in person-centered therapy took part in semi-structured interviews. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to explore the meaning they made of their experiences. Participants’ experiences centered around five themes: 1) feeling my vulnerability entering a relationship with a powerful figure; 2) being invited to express myself; 3) evaluating if I can trust my counselor; 4) feeling I’m in control in a relationship with boundaries; and 5) exercising my power in the relationship. Participants described a process whereby, helped by their counselor, they negotiated an unequal power dynamic and were able to exercise power in the relationship. Implications for person-centered therapists working with adolescents are considered.

Therapist momentary experiences of disconnection with clients

ABSTRACTTherapist in-session experiences of momentary disconnection from clients have not been previously studied. Four person-centered therapists participated in semi-structured in-depth one-to-one interviews to investigate the nature of these experiences. Using grounded theory analyses and drawing on concepts from emotion-focused therapy and pre-therapy, we identified four types of therapist disconnection process in reaction to difficult client process: becoming overwhelmed by a painful client memory; overidentifying with an embodied client feeling; frustration over the pursuit of a disengaged client; and taking on too much responsibility for a client’s stuckness. They thus involved therapist overinvolvement, which led to emotional dysregulation followed by preoccupying secondary reactive emotions such as grief, panic or guilt at their disconnection. Coping with the trigger by disconnecting and becoming incongruent evoked a conflict between participants’ professional role and their personal needs. By becoming congruent again, therapists were able to reengage with their clients and could reattend to clients’ frames of reference. Participants identified therapist self-insight and self-care as key factors for preventing future disconnection.

How volunteer person-centered counselors feel they have been affected by not finding work

ABSTRACTMany person-centered therapists provide their services on a voluntary basis wishing to enrich and expand their experiences as individuals and counselors. However, while rewarding, volunteers may also be affected by the difficulties of long-term unemployment. In this study, nine volunteer person-centered counselors in Greece aged 22–65, holding a Diploma in person-centered counseling, were interviewed. Participants were asked about how their experiences of not finding paid work might be affecting both themselves and their client work. The results indicated that long-term unemployment substantially reduces the counselors’ belief in their knowledge, skills, and counseling abilities while at the same time introducing doubts about their choice of profession, and even the very nature of the person-centered counseling process.

Passionate about presence – a reflection on the experience of being a person-centered therapist who teaches mainstream mindfulness

ABSTRACTThis is a personal and experiential reflection on the connection between mainstream (secular) mindfulness and the person-centered approach (PCA). Both are best understood rather as ways of being, pointing to our natural capacity to live open to the flow of our moment-to-moment experience and to relate to self and other with compassion. In the same way that as a person-centered therapist I offer a space for another characterized by the core conditions, so mindfulness practice invites me to open to the life that’s here – and supports me in staying present, even and especially when it hurts. Reflecting on meditation practise, my experience as a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) teacher and as a mindfulness-based counsellor I explore the heartful-ness of the PCA and mindfulness. I refer to aspects of the more recently developed Mindful Self-Compassion programme, described as the cultivation of “loving connected presence” which I suggest mirrors the core conditions. Both approaches have been reduced and misrepresented as simply techniques. By contrast I invite you as you read to get curious about your own experience and include suggestions for short meditations throughout.

Congruence: the social contract between a client and therapist

ABSTRACTThis paper will examine what it means to be congruent as a therapist. Is a congruent therapist someone whose first priority is to be honest with him or herself and therefore hopefully intra-personally congruent? Or, is a congruent therapist instead someone whose only priority is to be honest with the client and therefore inter-personally congruent? We argue that what ought to constitute congruence in psychotherapeutic relationships is the degree to which the conduct of the client and psychotherapist conform to the social contract or rules that guide their relationship. Congruence is then an interpersonal construct based on a shared and collaborative understanding of the social contract. Consequently, behaviors that are congruent in one psychotherapeutic relationship (psychoanalytic) might be incongruent in another kind of psychotherapeutic relationship (client-centered). We show that the client-centered therapist of 1951 followed a different set of rules than the person-centered therapist of today. The client-centered therapist would be incongruent in the person-centered context and vice versa. We shall show further that while the rules that guide client-centered therapy are perfectly clear, the rules that guide person-centered therapy are vague.

From There and Back Again.

This article describes my journey from being a radical, person-centered therapist in the 1960s to the present. In the 1960s, my colleagues and I saw therapy as a person-to-person encounter. Over the years I lost that notion and became corrupted by the idea that therapy is a process of intervening to make things happen in clients. In the 1990s, I found my way back to the idea of therapy as a meeting of persons because of a research review that showed that it was clients' investment and creativity that were primarily responsible for making therapy work and because of my experiences with clients. In the meantime, the field had aged and political developments within it, such as the empirically supported treatments movement, also influenced how I came to view myself. I conclude by giving my current view of therapy as a process in which I am not intervening but engaging in a person-to-person meeting, within which I am free to offer techniques and ideas from many different approaches if appropriate.

Encounter-oriented learning programs for person-centered psychotherapists: Some learnings from decades of experience and their theoretical background

This paper describes the learning program for person-centered therapists provided by the Institute for Person-Centered Studies in Austria (IPS of APG) and its theoretical background. The program essentially builds upon encounter groups. It even regards theory development and supervision processes as encounter-oriented parts of learning to become a psychotherapist. This learning in groups is set in relation to the development of the person-centered approach (PCA) as a social psychological approach. The underlying comprehension of the phenomena of encounter and encounter groups is evaluated from the viewpoint of learning programs. The experiences within this setting are discussed.

Being a person-centered therapist and the challenge of working with the emotionally focused therapy model: a case study

This case study will explore the process of therapy offered to a young distressed couple, along with reflections on the ways that process was experienced by a Person Centered Approach therapist (PCA) who added Emotionally Focused Therapy (EFT) to her practice. A brief summary of the EFT model together with its compatibility with PCA philosophy and values is presented along with excerpts from different sessions illustrating the different therapeutic steps involved. The case presentation is followed by a commentary of the therapist’s supervisor.

Ecopsychology: challenges for person-centered therapy

Ecopsychology is the study of the relationship between human beings and their ecological context. As a branch of psychology, it is yet to be integrated meaningfully into mainstream psychology or psychotherapeutic practice. This paper explores the relationship between person-centered therapy (PCT) and ecopsychological perspectives, and asks a number of questions. These include: To what extent is PCT challenged or critiqued by ecopsychological perspectives? Does PCT have anything valuable to bring to ecopsychology? Can PCT be used in the service of the earth, rather than just in the service of human clients? This analysis generates some challenges for person-centered therapy, both in theory and in practice. Three particular challenges are explored, namely, the challenge to the role and nature of the self, the challenge to non-directivity, and the challenge of developing ecotherapeutic practice in the context of evidence-based practice. These challenges contain both dilemmas and opportunities for person-centered theory and for person-centered therapists, who wish to take account of ecological and ecopsychological perspectives in their therapeutic work.

Can you be integrative and a person-centered therapist at the same time?

I argue that person-centered therapy is a “fuzzy set” with a variety of members that bear a family resemblance to one another. I suggest that some members of this fuzzy set are approaches that integrate various activities and procedures into their practice along with traditional empathic understanding responses. Based on quotations from Carl Rogers I demonstrate that these approaches deserve to be included as members of the family and that if one follows what Rogers said there is no warrant for the idea that classical nondirective practice is the only “true” person-centered therapy. I argue that one can practice person-centered therapy in an integrative way by including techniques and procedures from other approaches, by meeting at relational depth, and by focusing on experiencing and emotions. I conclude by arguing that it is important that we be open to alternative ways of actualizing person-centered principles.