Persistent Delinquency Research Articles

Adolescents in therapeutic residential care: treatment needs and characteristics

ABSTRACT Despite the growing body of literature examining the complex needs of adolescents in residential care populations, few studies have investigated the specific treatment needs and characteristics of adolescents in therapeutic residential care (TRC). This study aimed to describe and compare risk, need and responsivity factors in a national sample of 737 juveniles (63% males, mean age = 16.2) who displayed serious behavioural problems. The study utilised comprehensive assessment data, including demographic information, clinical variables, and risk factors assessed with the Youth Level of Service/Case management Inventory (YLS/CMI). Sample characteristics were explored, and three subgroups were compared: adolescents with serious substance abuse, adolescents with a high risk of continued delinquency and adolescents with low/moderate risk. The sample showed complex needs in multiple criminogenic domains and substantial mental health problems. Subgroups were clearly differentiated by the YLS/CMI risk profile and several demographic attributes; however, most clinical variables concerning mental health overlapped between groups. The findings suggest that TRC interventions should be aimed at reducing the risk of persistent delinquency and structured according to the principles of risk, need and responsivity. The study has important clinical implications for how differentiated services can tailor interventions to group-based needs and characteristics.

The Distinct Roles of Biological and Perceived Pubertal Timing in Delinquency and Depressive Symptoms from Adolescence to Adulthood.

Pubertal timing is a robust predictor of externalizing and internalizing problems in adolescence, but controversies remain whether only early or off-time (both early and late) pubertal timing is associated with negative developmental outcomes and whether effects differ across perceptions of pubertal timing and actual biological pubertal timing. Additionally, less is known about the longevity of pubertal timing effects and mediators of effects that persist through adolescence and into adulthood. This longitudinal study investigated the effects of early and off-time pubertal timing, in form of perceived pubertal timing relative to peers and reported biological pubertal timing relative to age, on delinquency and depressive symptoms in adolescence and young adulthood between 2003 and 2022. Peer deviance and school connectedness were examined as mediators of any persisting effects. The sample included 704 youth (52% male, 76% African American, 22% Non-Hispanic White) who were assessed at four time points from early adolescence (Mean ages: 11.8, 13.2) to late adolescence (Mean age: 17.6) and young adulthood (Mean age: 27.7). Perceived off-time pubertal timing in males and early biological pubertal timing in both males and females were risk factors for persistent delinquency into young adulthood, but neither form of pubertal timing was associated with depressive symptoms. None of the effects were mediated by peer deviance or school connectedness. These findings advance the understanding of more nuanced effects of pubertal timing on adjustment problems in diverse youth as they develop from early adolescence to adulthood.

Empirical Determination of Transitory and Persistent Delinquency in Chilean Youth: Validation of the Criminal Engagement Severity Scale "EGED".

Evidence from several longitudinal studies has established the relevance of the approach of evolutionary criminology to understanding and intervening with adolescent criminal offenders, seeking to halt the criminal behavior before its potential consolidation in adulthood. The aim of this study is to present the psychometric properties of the Criminal Engagement Severity Scale (EGED) to discriminate between transitory and persistent delinquency in Chilean adolescents of both sexes. The characteristics of the sample are revealed through descriptive analyses, and evidence of validity and reliability is provided that show its discriminant capacity using ROC curves and odds ratios, measures of internal consistency (Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s Ω), intraclass correlation, and unidimensional statistics. The results indicate that the EGED adequately discriminates between transitory and persistent delinquency, so that its use in contexts of assessment and intervention with adolescent criminal offenders can be recommended, because it helps to determine the intensity of the intervention required.

Reducing aggression and improving offending outcomes in youth with conduct disorder, results of a systematic review

AimsThe aim of this literature review was to determine what interventions are effective in reducing aggression and offending behaviour in under 18's with conduct disorder.Null hypothesis: There is no difference in aggression or offending behaviour in under 18's with conduct problems in spite of interventions offeredBackgroundMental health services for children and adolescents who are aggressive or who have come into contact with the Youth Justice System are sparse and often under resourced. Conduct disorder (CD) is one of the most frequently diagnosed conditions in adolescents, particularly in young offenders (Kenny et al 2007). The most effective prevention programs for youth at risk of persistent delinquency has previously been found to be a multi model program focussing on the family context. However, this has not taken in to consideration the extent and prevalence of mental disorder, including conduct disorder, within the target population.MethodA systematic literature search was undertaken on medline and psychoinfo between January and December 2018. Identified papers were then screened by two independent researchers against pre-agreed inclusion and exclusion criteria. Relevant papers were assessed for bias and results summarised.ResultFrom an initial data set of 526 papers, 9 were included for review. 4 focussed on psychopharmacology (1 aripiprazole, 1 risperidone, 1 risperidone vs clozapine, 1 clozapine), 1 family centred feedback, 1 Mode Deactivation Therapy and 3 were multi modal (combinations of Mode Deactivation Therapy, Stop Now and Act Programme, CBT, Didactic sessions, 1:1 counselling). None of the multi-modal interventions were standardised or comparable to each other. End points varied from 8 weeks (aripiprazole) to 15 months (multimodal SNAP programme). Settings varied from community programmes to secure inpatient settings. Whilst one risperidone study reported it to be effective in reducing aggression, it was not significant. One SNAP (multimodal) programme failed to show significant effect. All other 7 interventions, across various methods, demonstrated significant reductions in aggression, violence or other antisocial behaviour.ConclusionFew papers were identified that assessed interventions for youth with conduct disorder. The papers that were identified were significantly heterogeneous in their intervention, sample selection, methodology and outcome measures. Unfortunately, this leads to an inability to compare any interventions for this demographic. Despite the rise in Forensic Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, there is a weak and poorly understood evidence base for supporting and managing young people with conduct disorder.

Developmental Trajectories of Delinquent and Aggressive Behavior: Evidence for Differential Heritability.

The developmental course of antisocial behavior is often described in terms of qualitatively distinct trajectories. However, the genetic etiology of various trajectories is not well understood. We examined heterogeneity in the development of delinquent and aggressive behavior in 1532 twin youth using four waves of data collection, spanning ages 9-10 to 16-18. A latent class growth analysis was used to uncover relevant subgroups. For delinquent behavior, three latent classes emerged: Non-Delinquent, Low-Level Delinquent, and Persistent Delinquent. Liability for persistent delinquency had a substantial genetic origin (heritability = 67%), whereas genetic influences were negligible for lower-risk subgroups. Three classes of aggressive behavior were identified: Non-Aggressive, Moderate, and High. Moderate heritability spanned the entire continuum of risk for aggressive behavior. Thus, there are differences between aggressive behavior and non-aggressive delinquency with respect to heterogeneity of etiology. We conclude that persistent delinquency represents an etiologically distinct class of rule-breaking with strong genetic roots.

One is not the other: Predicting offending after discharge from secure residential care of male adolescents with four risk profiles

PurposeAdolescents who are admitted to secure residential care have a high risk of delinquency after discharge. However, this risk may differ between subgroups in this heterogeneous population of adolescents with severe psychiatric problems and disruptive problem behaviour. In this study, the predictive validity of four risk profiles was examined for the number of minor, moderate, and severe offences after discharge from secure residential care. MethodsThe sample comprised 238 male former patients of a hospital for youth forensic psychiatry and orthopsychiatry in the Netherlands. In three Poisson regression analyses, the relationship between four previously identified risk profiles and the number of minor, moderate, and severe offences after discharge was examined. ResultsThe results showed that the four risk profiles differed significantly in the number of minor, moderate, and severe offences after discharge. Post hoc analysis revealed no mediating effect of termination of treatment on the relationship between the risk profiles and the number of minor, moderate, and severe offending after discharge. ConclusionAdolescents with many risk factors in multiple domains and adolescents with mainly family risks have an increased risk of persistent delinquency after discharge. Treatment should be tailored more effectively to the specific risks and needs of these adolescents.

Risk and Resilience among Children with Incarcerated Parents: Examining Heterogeneity in Delinquency and School Outcomes

The present study utilized latent profile analysis with 1088 children with incarcerated parents to identify heterogeneity in behavioral and social problems. Four profiles were observed. The majority (61%) were well-adjusted with low behavioral problems at school and less affiliation with antisocial friends. Youth classified as overactive (20%) displayed frequent disruptive and hyperactive behaviors, while isolated youth (14%) exhibited high loneliness and depression and were most likely to be bullied. Youth in the aggressive profile (7%) exhibited frequent aggression, school behavioral problems, and affiliation with antisocial friends. Although the aggressive profile represented the smallest proportion of the sample, their level of delinquent behavior and number of negative school outcomes were the most concerning. Examination of risk and protective factors by profile found overactive and isolated youth to be more likely to have two or more adults in the household compared to well-adjusted and aggressive youth. Meanwhile, well-adjusted youth had significantly higher school connectedness, parent support, and positive teacher relationships. Aggressive youth were least likely to be raised by a married caregiver. Universal behavioral assessments of children with incarcerated parents would be useful in identifying youth at risk for escalating or persistent delinquency or hyperactivity.

Looking into the crystal ball: quality of life, delinquency, and problems experienced by young male adults after discharge from a secure residential care setting in the Netherlands

BackgroundAdolescents in residential care are a vulnerable population with many problems in several life areas. For most of these adolescents, these problems persist after discharge and into adulthood. Since an accumulation of risk factors in multiple domains increases the likelihood of future adverse outcomes, it would be valuable to investigate whether there are differences in life after residential care between subgroups based on multiple co-occurring risk factors.Aims and hypothesisThe aim of this exploratory follow-up study is to explore differences between young adults—classified in four risk profiles—in relation to life after discharge from a secure residential care setting. It is hypothesised that young adults with a profile with many risks in multiple domains will experience more problems after discharge, such as (persistent) delinquency, compared to young adults with a profile with lower risks.MethodsFollow-up data were collected from 46 former patients of a hospital for youth forensic psychiatry and orthopsychiatry in the Netherlands. In order to illustrate these young adults’ life after discharge, self-reported outcome measures divided into five domains (i.e., quality of life, daily life, social life, problems, and delinquency) were used. Differences between four classes based on pre-admission risk factors, which were identified in a previous study by latent class analysis, were explored by three (non-)parametric statistical tests.ResultsLife after discharge for most young adults was characterised by close friends and a high quality of life, but also by substance abuse, professional support, debts, and delinquency. Only a few significant differences between the classes were found, primarily between young adults with risk factors in the individual, family, school, and peer domains and young adults in the other three classes.ConclusionsYoung adults experience a high quality of life after discharge from secure residential care, despite the presence of persistent problems. Some indications have been found that young adults with risk factors in four domains are at greatest risk for persistent problems in young adulthood. Because of the high amount of persistent problems, residential treatment and aftercare should focus more on patients’ long-term needs.

Adolescent Females with Limited Delinquency: A Follow-Up on Educational Attainment and Recidivism

BackgroundResearch has established a strong relationship between education and later life outcomes, where the connection between different school problems and delinquency have been widely acknowledged. These studies have often sampled male juvenile offenders exhibiting extensive and/or persistent delinquency. Less is known about the educational attainment of female juvenile offenders, especially those who display limited delinquency. In a previous study (Azad and Ginner Hau in Child Youth Serv Rev 95:384–396, 2018), the characteristics of this particular group of offenders were explored where the results showed limited self-reported delinquency but elevated school problems.ObjectiveThe present aim was to conduct a follow-up study of the same sample of female adolescents, in order to study their educational attainment during adolescence and the rate of recidivism within 24 months after being sentenced through registry data.MethodThe sample consisted of adolescent females (N = 144) who were convicted of a crime and sentenced to youth service between 2007 and 2012 in Stockholm, Sweden.ResultsThe results showed that the majority of the females did not reoffend within 2 years after being sentenced. They did, however, display high educational deficits. Their grade point average at the end of both compulsory education and upper secondary school was much lower than that of young females in general, and the majority had either dropped out, never begun or received zero in all subjects at the end of upper secondary school.ConclusionsThe low school results indicate a need to support young delinquent females’ educational attainment in order to improve their overall life chances.

Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Recidivism in Serious Juvenile Offenders: Testing the Mediating Role of Future Orientation.

Evidence suggests delinquent youth are more likely to suffer from posttraumatic stress symptoms and links those symptoms to subsequent aggressive behavior and criminal activity. Research also indicates the impact of decision-making capacity in this context. Specifically, future orientation has been shown to play an important role in adolescent delinquency; less future orientation has been linked with persistent delinquency. Notably, trauma exposure is associated with slower development of future orientation in delinquent youth. Using a sample of serious juvenile offenders, the current study examined the relation between posttraumatic stress symptoms and aggressive reoffending testing the hypothesis that future orientation would mediate that relation. Results did not indicate significant mediation by future orientation in the link between posttraumatic stress symptoms and aggressive reoffending. However, experiencing posttraumatic stress symptoms and low future orientation separately increased the likelihood of aggressive recidivism. Findings highlight the value of comprehensive prevention and intervention efforts, targeting both posttraumatic stress symptoms and future orientation.

Loss and Grief Among Persistently Delinquent Youth: The Contribution of Adversity Indicators and Psychopathy-Spectrum Traits to Broadband Internalizing and Externalizing Psychopathology.

Despite profound adversity exposure (loss, trauma) among delinquents, with adversity linked to early-onset persistent delinquency [EOPD], externalizing syndromes (Conduct Disorder) continue to overshadow impairing internalizing syndromes. Three understudied factors potentially contribute to both syndromes among delinquents: bereavement-related distress [BRD] from death-exposures; psychopathy-spectrum traits associated with system-involvement; and emotional abuse, implicated in lifespan morbidities. Therefore, we characterized loss/BRD among 107 EOPD adolescent girls and boys, comparing: 1) psychopathology and maltreatment (emotional, physical and sexual abuse); and 2) adversity-related (BRD, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder [PTSD], maltreatment) and psychopathy-spectrum predictors of internalizing and externalizing syndromes. Death exposure was common, resulting in developmental disruptions (school difficulties: 49.4%) and clinically significant BRD (33.8%), with girls evidencing greater BRD severity. BRD and psychopathy-traits, not PTSD, positively predicted all youths' internalizing, and boys' externalizing, syndromes. More frequent physical abuse increased both syndromes among boys. Emotional abuse alone predicted girls' externalizing syndromes, highlighting the contribution of this overlooked maltreatment-type.

Can We Hasten Development? Effects of Treatment on Psychosocial Maturity.

Research continues to highlight factors associated with developmental immaturity, including persistent delinquency. This article examines whether aspects of developmental immaturity, psychosocial maturity, and emotion regulation are responsive to therapeutic intervention. Fifty-seven female youth in secure residential juvenile justice facilities participated in a randomized controlled trial of the Juvenile Justice Anger Management (JJAM) Treatment for Girls, an intervention that targets skills relevant to psychosocial maturity, including problem-solving, coping, and emotion regulation. Participants in JJAM showed increases in temperance, providing evidence that intervention might stimulate psychosocial development. Implications for treatment, evaluation, and measurement of psychosocial maturity are discussed.

Why is young maternal age at first childbirth a risk factor for persistent delinquency in their male offspring? Examining the role of family and parenting factors.

Children born to mothers who were younger than average at their first childbirth are at increased risk for future persistent delinquent behaviour, but explanations for this remain unclear. Our aim was to identify possible family and parenting variables that may help explain this relationship. We hypothesised that parental stress, large number of children in the home, low socioeconomic status (including neighbourhood problems) and poor parenting would account for the link between early first motherhood and their offspring's delinquency. Four hundred and sixty-two boys were selected from the Pittsburgh Youth Study, a longitudinal study of a random sample of school boys in Pittsburgh, initially assessed half-yearly and then annually from 7 to 19 years of age, using self-reporting and other reporting methods. Indirect effect models were used to test relationships between variables. Higher levels of parental stress, poorer parent-child communication and caring for a larger number of children all mediated the relationship between maternal youth and persistent delinquency by their boys, but only explained about 20% of it. At least partial explanations of the relationship between a mother's age at first childbirth and persistent delinquency in her male offspring suggest that future research should test whether early interventions with younger mothers to decrease their sense of stress in parenting and improve their capacity for communication with their child(ren) may help to prevent persistent delinquency in their boys. Programmes designed to help young women make more informed and planned decisions about their pregnancies should also be evaluated. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Mediating Role of Self-Regulation Between Intrafamilial Violence and Mental Health Adjustment in Incarcerated Male Adolescents

This article investigates the relation between history of intrafamilial violence and self-regulatory capacity, cognitive processing, and mental health adjustment in incarcerated adolescents. Adolescents were incarcerated at the time of the study for various violent offenses, ranging from persistent delinquency to sexual assault (n = 115). A model is proposed that posits that self-regulation, cognitive ability, and cognitive processing are integral to the relation between intrafamilial violence and mental health function. The primary hypothesis of the study tests this mediation model. The relations between mental health, cognitive processing, self-regulation, and intrafamilial violence are also examined. The study was conducted during two sessions at a juvenile facility in the Midwest using survey measures, academic and intelligence testing, and cognitive tasks. Youth were between the ages of 13 and 20. Approximately 70% were previously diagnosed with a disability. Significant Pearson's correlations were found between seven out of eight mental health subscales of the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and intrafamilial violence history. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the role of cognitive processing in the association between intrafamilial violence and mental health function. Nonverbal or performance deficits, a significant difference between verbal skills and nonverbal skills, were related to intrafamilial violence. Self-regulation partially mediated the relation between intrafamilial violence and mental health function. Self-regulation ability may be compromised by intrafamilial violence and be a precursor to both internalizing and externalizing mental health problem in incarcerated youth. Educational, clinical, and research implications are discussed.

Symptoms of Conduct Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Callous-Unemotional Traits as Unique Predictors of Psychosocial Maladjustment in Boys: Advancing an Evidence Base for DSM-V

The incremental utility of symptoms of conduct disorder (CD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and callous-unemotional (CU) traits for predicting psychosocial outcomes across multiple domains was examined in a community sample of 1,517 boys. Several outcomes were assessed semiannually across a 2-year follow-up, including antisocial behavior, internalizing problems, peer conflict, and academic difficulties. Official criminal charges were also examined across adolescence. CD symptoms emerged as the most robust predictor of future antisocial outcomes. However, ODD symptoms predicted later criminal charges and conduct problems, and CU traits were robustly associated with serious and persistent criminal behavior in boys. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms predicted increases in oppositional defiant behavior and conduct problems over time and were uniquely related to future academic difficulties. Both ADHD and ODD symptoms predicted social and internalizing problems in boys, whereas CU traits were associated with decreased internalizing problems over time. The current findings have implications for revisions being considered as part of the DSM-V. Specifically, incorporating CU traits into the diagnostic criteria for Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBD) may help to further delineate boys at risk for severe and persistent delinquency. Although currently prohibited, allowing a diagnosis of ODD when CD is present may provide unique prognostic information about boys who are at risk for future criminal behavior, social problems, and internalizing problems.

The Impact of Delinquency on Young Adult Sexual Risk Behaviors and Sexually Transmitted Infections

Youth in the juvenile justice system have increased sexual risk behavior and sexually transmitted infections (STI). However, research exploring the effect of self-reported delinquency on sexual risk behavior and STI is limited, and results vary depending on the populations studied. Therefore, we used nationally representative data to examine the longitudinal association between delinquent behavior, sexual risk behavior, and STI among adolescents and young adults. We used a sample of 10,828 participants from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Health. Outcomes included STI and sexual risk behavior from Wave III (17-27-year-olds). Predictors for the generalized linear regression models (stratified by gender) include race, age, education, relationship status at Wave III, and delinquent behavior groups (life-course persistent, adolescence-limited, late-onset and nondelinquency). None of the delinquency groups were associated with young adult STI. Only life-course persistent delinquency was associated consistently with sexual risk behavior (except for condom use). The adolescence-limited and late-onset groups had limited effects on sexual risk outcomes. Life-course persistent delinquency influences the expression of young adult sexual risk behavior. However, delinquent behavior does not predict STI in a population-based sample of youth. Programs and interventions that address the sexual health of youth need to consider the role of delinquency in shaping sexual risk behaviors, and future research should explore broader societal and environmental risk factors on STIs.

Adolescence-limited versus persistent delinquency: Extending Moffitt's hypothesis into adulthood.

The authors examined how neuropsychological, personality, and environmental risk factors and their interactions were related to trajectories of delinquent behavior from adolescence to adulthood. Four waves of longitudinal data from 698 male participants, ages 12-18 at Time 1 and ages 25-31 at Time 4, were included in the analyses. Using a growth mixture model approach, 4 trajectories were identified: nondelinquents, adolescence-limited delinquents, adolescence-to-adulthood-persistent delinquents, and escalating delinquents. Five risk factors distinguished escalating from persistent delinquents and 5 also distinguished nondelinquents from the 3 delinquency trajectories. Persistent delinquents scored significantly higher than adolescence-limited delinquents on only one risk factor, disinhibition. Overall, few of the factors that are related to childhood-to-adolescence persistence were associated with persistence in delinquency beyond adolescence.

Adolescence-limited versus persistent delinquency: extending Moffitt's hypothesis into adulthood.

The authors examined how neuropsychological, personality, and environmental risk factors and their interactions were related to trajectories of delinquent behavior from adolescence to adulthood. Four waves of longitudinal data from 698 male participants, ages 12-18 at Time 1 and ages 25-31 at Time 4, were included in the analyses. Using a growth mixture model approach, 4 trajectories were identified: nondelinquents, adolescence-limited delinquents, adolescence-to-adulthood-persistent delinquents, and escalating delinquents. Five risk factors distinguished escalating from persistent delinquents and 5 also distinguished nondelinquents from the 3 delinquency trajectories. Persistent delinquents scored significantly higher than adolescence-limited delinquents on only one risk factor, disinhibition. Overall, few of the factors that are related to childhood-to-adolescence persistence were associated with persistence in delinquency beyond adolescence.

Developmental Aspects of Delinquency and Internalizing Problems and Their Association With Persistent Juvenile Substance Use Between Ages 7 and 18

Analyzed longitudinal data from 3 samples of the Pittsburgh Youth Study on boys ages 7 to 18 to examine the co-occurrence of persistent substance use with other problem behaviors, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), persistent delinquency, and persistent internalizing problems (i.e., depressed mood, anxiety, shy or withdrawn behavior). In preadolescence, persistent substance users also tended to be persistent delinquents, and half of this group displayed persistent internalizing problems as well. In adolescence, a third of the persistent substance users did not manifest other persistent problems. Across the samples, the least common substance users were those who manifested persistent internalizing problems only. Logistic regression analyses showed that persistent substance use in preadolescence was predicted by persistent delinquency and internalizing problems and in adolescence by persistent delinquency only. The combination of persistent substance use and delinquency was predicted by oppositional defiant disorder in middle childhood and by persistent internalizing problems in middle to late childhood. ADHD was not a predictor of persistent substance use (and delinquency) in any of the analyses. Results are discussed in terms of developmental models of multiproblem youth with an eye on improving early interventions.

Cerebral dysfunction, neurologic symptoms and recurrent delinquency--I. Review of the literature

Men with polytropic and persistent delinquency constitute a core group of criminal offenders. Criminological research could establish a set of social characteristics for this group, but psychiatric, neurological and neuropsychological variables with importance to the formation of delinquent recidivism are rarely investigated. In this study we give a survey of the results concerning the relevance of genetic factors for delinquent behaviour. Then we review the development of the "minimal brain disorder" conception and its changes to "hyperkinetic syndrome", "attention deficit disorder" and to specific developmental disorders, which are all associated with a higher degree of conduct disorders and delinquent behaviour. We finally discuss the stability and relevance of nonfocal neurological ("soft") signs and depict a tentative model of the relations between the influential factors. Part II of this study (66) gives an account of the results of the "Heidelberg Delinquency Study" in this area.