Persian Era Research Articles

Unveiling ancient Jerusalem’s pastoral dynamics (7th to 2nd centuries BCE) with multi-isotope analysis

This study explores changes in pastoral practices in the Jerusalem region (Iron Age II - Late Hellenistic) through a multi-isotope approach (strontium, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen). Based on the analysis of 135 sheep, goat, and cattle teeth and bone samples from Givati Parking Lot we demonstrate the value of this method in reconstructing past animal husbandry, revealing adaptation and resilience of pastoral communities amidst environmental and socio-political changes. Isotopic analysis indicates local sourcing for most animals, with intriguing outliers from distant regions up to 150 km away, suggesting regional exchange networks. Notably, the Persian period (5th century BCE) exhibits a wider isotope range, implying increased flexibility and exploitation of diverse grazing lands, potentially driven by climate shifts and political upheavals. Conversely, Late Hellenistic (2nd century BCE) livestock display restricted movement, while showcasing a rise in desert caprines, indicative of increased import compared to the Persian era. These findings highlight the dynamism and adaptability of past pastoral communities, adjusting their strategies in response to various pressures. This study opens new avenues for understanding human-environment interactions in the Levant and underscores the power of multi-isotope approaches in unraveling intricate socio-economic and ecological dynamics of the past.

Ancient Versions and Enigmatic Valleys

Abstract This paper concerns the rendering of Hebrew “terebinth” as “valley,” and the mention of a “valley” near Hebron in a plus. In the Targums, the Vulgate and Aquila the “terebinths” of Moreh and Mamre (Gen 12:6; 18:1; Deut 11:30) are represented by a term meaning “valley.” According to the standard analysis this rendering avoids the association of these precincts with non-monotheistic cults. However, this theory fails to explain the use of the term “valley.” Midrashic comments point to anti-Samaritan polemics, based on Deut 11:30, where “terebinth” and “plain,” Arabah, meet. Furthermore, a plus of the Septuagint and the Samaritan mentions “the valley of Hebron” (Gen 23:2; cf. the gloss, 37:14). These constellations are related to a particular sensitivity for the status of the Mamre region in the Persian era and beyond as it belongs to Idumaea, and its religious practice includes non-monotheistic cults.

Destruction, Death, and Drama: Narratives of Religiocide in the Hebrew Bible

Abstract This article analyzes active strategies for dismantling religion and discusses their role in religion demise. The aim is to throw light on how the dramatic and violent narratives of religion demolition stemming from different religious groups factor into processes and understandings of demise. I focus on religious change in the Hebrew Bible, analyzing aspects of two narratives that thematize an active dismantling of religious practices: (1) the story of the competition on Mount Carmel between the prophet Elijah and the Baʿal prophets in 1 Kings 18, involving the prophet’s mockery, denigration, and eventual killing of his religious opponents; and (2) the “reform” of King Josiah in 2 Kings 23 that involves the king instigating several different forms of destruction of religious objects and cult sites and the killing of priests deemed illegitimate. Analyzing how the dismantling activities are portrayed, I suggest that the dramatic narratives about dismantling religion form part of cultural memory in the Persian era, not in the eras they purport to depict. I discuss which roles dismantling strategies play in the narrative, and how they played a role in the identity building processes leading from ancient “Israelite” and “Judean” lived religion toward early forms of “Judaism” in the Persian era as performative group-internal communication supporting enclave characteristics. My key suggestion is that narratives about religion demolition should be taken into account in discussions of religious demise more broadly. Narratives of religion demolition are often spectacular, dramatic, and violent, and they can play important roles in forms of religious identity formation and cultural memory, especially by making apostasy appear risky within the in-group. Thus, they influence both processes of demise and understandings of religious demise in transformation processes.

The Septuagint as a holy text – The first ‘bible’ of the early church

This article acknowledges the fact that historically there are two phases in the emergence of the Septuagint – a Jewish phase and a Christian one. The article deals first with methodological issues. It then offers a historical orientation. In the past some scholars have failed to distinguish between key historical phases: the pre-exilic/exilic (Israelite – 10 tribes), the exilic (the Babylonian exile ‒ 2 tribes) and the post-exilic (Judaean/Jewish). Many scholars are unaware of the full significance of the Hellenistic era, including the Seleucid and Ptolemaic eras and their impact on ‘biblical’ textual material. Others again overestimate the significance of this era; the Greek scholar Evangelia Dafni is an example. Many are uninformed about the Persian era, which includes the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanian eras, each one of which had an impact on Judaism. An example is the impact of Persian dualism. Another problem is the application of the concept of ‘the Bible ’. The notion of ‘Bible’ applies only after the 16th century Common Era, specifically after the advent of the printing press. Earlier, depending on the context, we had clay tablets (Mesopotamia), vella (Levant-Judah) and papyri (Egypt) to write on. This is followed by a discussion of the Masoretic text and the LXX, including the reasons for the rejection of the LXX by the Jews. This is significant because the LXX was originally a Jewish document. Attempts to re-evaluate the concept of the Bible are discussed. The Septuagint subsequently followed, which leads to the conclusion that the LXX became the first Bible of the Christian church. Contribution: This article fits into the focus of HTS because it argues that the Septuagint is the first Bible of the early church. It also underscores the scope of this Theological periodical, for the Greek Bible is part of its subject matter that is researched.

Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary

Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary

에스라-느헤미야 연구 서설

Ezra and Nehemiah are the most prominent figures who, along with the Israelite people taken captive to Babylon, returned to their homeland during the Persian era and campaigned for the political, religious, and social reform. With the temple of Zerubbabel and the walls of Jerusalem as their focal point, they worked, and, above all, fought against the religious syncretism caused by marriages to foreign women. The Book of Ezra-Nehemiah has been criticized as a book that gave birth to legalism and nationalism, reflecting the Judaism of the Second Temple period. However, this era has recently begun to be recognized as important because it was the time when the canonization of the Old Testament including the Pentateuch began to take place and because it is believed to have given birth to the Jewish origin of the New Testament times. In order to properly understand the continuity and discontinuity of Judeo- Christian tradition, we should grasp the earlier tradition (Deuteronomy, Ezekiel) and the comtemporary tradition (Malachi) that formed the Ezra-Nehemiahs theology, and the later tradition (Maccabees). Although the Book of Ezra-Nehemiah, along with the First and the Second Chronicles, are traditionally known to be a part of the Chronicler’s historical books, the Chronicles and the Book of Ezra-Nehemiah are now considered separate books and thus need to be researched independently. This article aims to function as a prolegomena which introduces various topics for the study of the Book of Ezra-Nehemiah.

Debunking the Latest Scenario on the Rise of the Pork Taboo

A number of studies from Tel Aviv date the rise of the pork taboo in Israel as early as the Iron Age I in order to salvage the notion that the taboo was a reaction to the pork-consuming habits of the hated Philistines. Though neither DNA analysis nor pig bone ratios support this scenario, these studies explain how the abhorrence of Iron Age Israelites for pork was eventually canonised in the Persian era. The present paper challenges the validity of each stage of the proposed scenario, arguing that the Hellenistic-era ethnic differentiation based on pork consumption cannot be pushed as far back as the Iron Age.

JOSHUA 24: SOME LITERARY AND THEOLOGICAL REMARKS

The aim of this article is to discuss the role and function of Joshua 24 in the current Pentateuch/Hexateuch/Enneateuch debate. Although Joshua 24 presents several textual issues, the emphasis of the article is to augment the role of Joshua 24 as an inclusive text, with the aim of uniting Judeans and Samaritans in the Persian era by emphasising loyalty to the Torah. The article highlights several shared traditions between Judeans and Samaritans in Joshua 24. This approach leads to the conclusion that Joshua 24 was probably written to replace Joshua 23, a Deuteronomistic text with an exclusive stance towards the other nations.

THE ASHKELON DOG CEMETERY CONUNDRUM

Between 1989 and 1992 about 1 200 dog remains were excavated at Ashkelon as part of the Leon Levy expedition. This find generated much interest and debate at the time. The leader of the excavations, Prof. Lawrence E. Stager of Harvard University, attributed the dog cemetery to the presence of a cultic healing centre to which the dogs were supposed to have belonged. As no such centre has been found up to the present, this article reassesses the available facts from the excavations, the subsequent research and analysis of the remains by Dr Paula Wapnish and Prof. Brian Hesse, as well as other opinions. A completely novel explanation will be formulated for the presence of so many dogs in Ashkelon during the Persian era and why they were buried in that particular plac

Eschatology in Malachi: The emergence of a doctrine

In this article the eschatology of Malachi is investigated within its own historical context. The socio-political and spiritual situation of the early postexilic Persian era in Yehud is briefly outlined. The attention is then focused on the prophetic voices which articulated eschatological visions at that point in time. This article’s contention is that Malachi’s eschatology had developed from that of Haggai, being influenced in the process by the eschatological insights of Zechariah and 3 Isaiah. The conclusion is that in Malachi Haggai’s proclamation of eschatological hope is confirmed, albeit adjusted by the introduction of divine judgement into his eschatological discourse in response to the community’s disappointment at the perceived delay in the fulfilment of the promised future.

Abraham's reinterpretation and life's meaning

This article contributes to the theme of life�s fullness by emphasising the struggle for meaning during the Persian era as reflected in Genesis 15 and 17. The community�s �strategy� was to reflect on their identity in order to find their place in the Persian-ruled society and experience something of life�s meaning. Different answers were given and each must be understood separately. In order to survive, one group opted for a broader view of the community and God (Genesis 17), while others were of the opinion that a narrower view had to be followed (Genesis 15). The arguments of both groups are discussed in this article.

｢契約の書｣における捕囚期以後ユダヤ社会の構造

The dating and the historical background of the Covenant Code (CC) are much debated. CC has long been regarded as the oldest law code in Israelite history. However, in our view, it would be more appropriate to refrain from using labels such as J, E and JE for the characterization of the pre-priestly Tetrateuch and, accordingly, reconsider the dating and historical background of CC. Regarding the final stage of the composition, our contention is that CC derives from Judean society in Persian era Palestine. The main purpose of this article is to indicate several pieces of evidence that support this hypothesis. The biblical law codes each reflect the specific perspectives of the communal networks in Judean society of Persian era Palestine. Since no subgroup in Palestine occupied an overpowering position, the law codes were simply juxtaposed, under the political pressure of the Persian empire, in order to shape a document of consensus.

HUMAN DIGNITY AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF IDENTITY IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

The status of Israel changed dramatically as a result of the Babylonian exile and its aftermath during the Persian era. Whereas the self-understanding of the people was closely linked to the Davidic monarchy during the pre-exilic time, the post-exilic community had to face the reality of their provincial existence under Persian imperial rule. The sociopolitical and socio-cultural environment changed dramatically because of these events, resulting in renewed processes of identity negotiation in Israel. We witness different attempts at verbalizing these processes in the biblical writings. The impact of the Persian imperial context on the self-understanding of the community in Jerusalem will be investigated with special reference to the Books of Chronicles. In these books � different to from e.g. Ezra-Nehemiah � a tendency towards inclusivism can be detected in the process of identity negotiation. This paper will show how this tendency relates to the qualified tolerance that was characteristic of the Persian (Achaemenid) era.

GUARDING THE MYSTERY AND MAJESTY OF GOD: REFLECTIONS ON THE HERMENEUTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE SECOND COMMANDMENT

The early post-exilic period in Israel’s history saw a radical reinterpretation of Yahweh’s presence among his people. This re-orientation was prompted by the significantly changed socio-religious conditions during the Persian era. Yahwism had to be defined in the absence of the luxurious sanctuary of the monarchic era, as well as in the context of a diversity of religions. Within this context the radical shift which is witnessed in the second commandment took place. A movement away from cult images to the strong prohibition of images (aniconism) was concluded. This movement is a reflection of the hermeneutical altercation on the mystery and majesty of God. The present paper investigates the hermeneutical implications of the second commandment for reflecting on human dignity in an African context. An overview will be provided of the history of research on the second commandment and the religious-historical circumstances that prompted it. Thereafter, the results of the overview will be brought into interaction with one particular Africentric interpretation of the Second Commandment.

The Theological Concept of YHWH’s Punitive Justice in the Hebrew Bible: Historical Development in the Context of the Judean Community in the Persian Period

Throughout the Hebrew Bible, the issue of the relationship between individual and community, and guilt and punishment arising therefrom is one of the most important topics. The texts upon which this paper is based present sections touching upon the question of sin and its consequences for the righteous, as well as for the wicked. This analysis positions that inquiry, based upon the focus in Gen 18, within the larger context arising from the ancient Israelite tradition. Gen 18:22b-33a mirrors the idea that God tolerates or forgives the guilt of a community because of the righteous individuals within that community. The concept of YHWH’s punitive justice in the Hebrew Bible indicates historical progress which reflects the socio-economic as well as demographic context. After exhaustive analysis of Gen 18:22b-33a, the author opines that the logical implication can be drawn that the historical situation of the Judean community in Persian era Palestine required protection of the righteous, not punishment of the sinner.

Vom Propheten und seiner Frau, einem Ephod und einem Teraphim—Anmerkungen zu Hos 3:1-4, 5

AbstractThis article has a double focus. On the one hand it covers the problems of Hos 3. It shows that Hos 3:3 announces punishment to the inhabitants of the former Northern kingdom and that Hos 3:5 represents a later addition. Hos 3:1-4,5 proves to be a late text. Thus it cannot be used as a biographical source for the 8th-century prophet Hosea. But it gives valuable insight in the theological debates of the late Persian era. On the other hand this article investigates the origins of ephod and teraphim (Hos 3:4): do the names apply to figurines of gods or even of Yahwe himself? The results point in a different direction. ‘Ephod’ seems to be the name of a priestly garment, and ‘teraphim’ originally designates a group of artefacts used for mantic purposes. Only in late texts do ephod und teraphim denote forbidden images illustrating supposed cultic abuses of ancient times.

Report on Underwater Excavation at the Phoenician Harbour, Atlit, Israel

Atlit is a small Phoenician settlement on the Carmel coast, with an artificial harbour, built during Iron Age II, before the Assyrian occupation, and used until the end of the Persian era. There are no remains of any later construction, in contrast to other Phoenician ports such as Sidon and Tyre. The study of Atlit harbour has therefore provided invaluable information on the positioning, planning and construction of Phoenician harbours in the Levant. This article is a summary of the most recent underwater excavation seasons at the harbour, and presents our conclusions on construction techniques and their historical implications. © 2009 The Author

Einige Beobachtungen zum Juda der Perserzeit in der Darstellung des Josephus, Antiquitates Buch 11

AbstractFor Josephus 3 Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther are the main sources for the history of the Persian era. His description of the final phase of the Persian domination focuses on three major incidents: the fratricide in the temple and the intervention of Bagoses; the foundation of the Gerizim Temple, which originated in an inner-Judean conflict and Alexander's visit of Jerusalem. This material, as well as the account of the transition of the empire to the Macedonians, is structured on the basis of historical knowledge of the Persian period derived from Greek sources. The major themes of Josephus' account are: (1) a close political and religious relationship with the Persian kings; (2) conflicts with the surrounding nations (most prominently with the Samaritans), while maintaining a strong loyalty to the Persians; and (3) united political actions of the Judeans under the leadership of figures like Zerubbabel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Mordecai. Only in the last phase of Persian rule does this unity break down. In many respects the epoch is a prototype of the behavior of Judeans and Jews in relation to the dominant world power in later periods.

Who Constitutes Society? Yehud's Self-Understanding in the Late Persian Era as Reflected in the Books of Chronicles

Research Article| December 01 2008 Who Constitutes Society? Yehud’s Self-Understanding in the Late Persian Era as Reflected in the Books of Chronicles Louis Jonker Louis Jonker Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Journal of Biblical Literature (2008) 127 (4): 703–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/25610151 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Permissions Search Site Citation Louis Jonker; Who Constitutes Society? Yehud’s Self-Understanding in the Late Persian Era as Reflected in the Books of Chronicles. Journal of Biblical Literature 1 January 2008; 127 (4): 703–724. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/25610151 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All Scholarly Publishing CollectiveSBL PressJournal of Biblical Literature Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Zion: A study in the early history of the Samaritans and Jews

This article explores how a new and very important development in the study of ancient Samaria sheds light on the import of two Judean texts written during the late Achaemenid or early Hellenistic era. The study begins with a discussion of the recent excavation of a large temple complex on Mt. Gerizim largely dating to the Hellenistic era, but with some material evidence stretching back to the Persian era. This remarkable discovery helps to answer some old questions, but it also raises new questions about Samarian-Judean relations during the Second Commonwealth. The selected case studies stem from the book of Chronicles and deal with Judah's relations with northern Israel. One involves King Abijah's address to "Jeroboam and all Israel" at Mt. Zemaraim during the early divided monarchy (2 Chr.13:4-12), while the other involves King Hezekiah's Passover invitation sent to all quarters of Israel, including the estranged northern tribes (2 Chr. 30:6-9). The study clarifies the context within which postmonarchic Judean writers worked (including their views of and aspirations for their own communities) by re-examining the larger geo-political and religious circumstances in which they lived.