Spatial Task Performance Research Articles

How to visualize the spatial uncertainty of landmark representations in maps?

Landmark representations in maps play an important role in spatial tasks such as self-localization, spatial orientation, and navigation. By matching landmarks to their map representations, people can identify their current location and orientation within a map. However, spatial inaccuracies of landmark representations like these of pictograms in maps have been found to affect the ability to successfully match spatial environments to their map representations. These map matching difficulties could negatively affect the performance in spatial tasks. Due to the increasing number of data sources used in modern map services, for example provided by volunteers, map data quality has become more heterogeneous and uncertain. Therefore, solutions for counteracting the negative effects of spatially inaccurate landmark representations on map matching are required. Here, we report two studies that investigate whether visualizing spatial landmark uncertainty can improve map matching. Although suggestions for visualizing uncertainty exist, there is no empirical evidence whether they can intuitively communicate spatial uncertainty of landmark representations. If map users are made aware of potential spatial inaccuracies in a map, they may observe small or moderate spatial inaccuracies of landmark representations but still be able to match these to the represented landmarks. Our findings support this assumption. Using pictogram size, transparency, or circular uncertainty areas around pictograms to communicate spatial uncertainty increased the likelihood of a perceived match between 3D environments or 360° images and a corresponding map representation when landmark representations were spatially inaccurate. Furthermore, our findings indicate that, in addition to landmarks, people use spatial reference points such as road segments for map matching. Thus, if sufficient other spatial reference points are available both in the environment and its map representation, negative effects of spatially inaccurate landmark representations on map matching may be less severe.

STEM activities for boosting pupils’ computational thinking and reducing their cognitive load: Roles of argumentation scaffolding and mental rotation

In order to promote students’ computational thinking (CT) involving authentic complex problem-solving competence, there has been encouragement to conduct STEM activities in K-12 schools. STEM activities usually require collaborative learning. Argumentation scaffolding is one of the effective strategies for collaborative learning, and is widely used in science education but less so in the STEM curriculum. Hence, this study intended to introduce argumentation scaffolding into STEM activities while also taking into account mental rotation as a non-trivial cognitive competence affecting spatial task performance. In this study, a 2 × 2 quasi-experiment was conducted with 60 fifth graders, evenly assigned to an experimental and a control group. It was found that (1) argumentation scaffolding and mental rotation significantly boosted pupils’ CT; (2) argumentation scaffolding exerted significant effects on cognitive load; and (3) there was a significant interaction between argumentation scaffolding and mental rotation which affected CT. In sum, the argumentation scaffolding significantly improved students’ CT and reduced their cognitive load. However, mental rotation only had a substantial effect on students’ CT. This study sheds light on how to effectively integrate argumentation scaffolding into STEM activities. In tandem, mental rotation plays a crucial role in STEM activities.

An Improved Dyna-Q Algorithm Inspired by the Forward Prediction Mechanism in the Rat Brain for Mobile Robot Path Planning.

The traditional Model-Based Reinforcement Learning (MBRL) algorithm has high computational cost, poor convergence, and poor performance in robot spatial cognition and navigation tasks, and it cannot fully explain the ability of animals to quickly adapt to environmental changes and learn a variety of complex tasks. Studies have shown that vicarious trial and error (VTE) and the hippocampus forward prediction mechanism in rats and other mammals can be used as key components of action selection in MBRL to support "goal-oriented" behavior. Therefore, we propose an improved Dyna-Q algorithm inspired by the forward prediction mechanism of the hippocampus to solve the above problems and tackle the exploration-exploitation dilemma of Reinforcement Learning (RL). This algorithm alternately presents the potential path in the future for mobile robots and dynamically adjusts the sweep length according to the decision certainty, so as to determine action selection. We test the performance of the algorithm in a two-dimensional maze environment with static and dynamic obstacles, respectively. Compared with classic RL algorithms like State-Action-Reward-State-Action (SARSA) and Dyna-Q, the algorithm can speed up spatial cognition and improve the global search ability of path planning. In addition, our method reflects key features of how the brain organizes MBRL to effectively solve difficult tasks such as navigation, and it provides a new idea for spatial cognitive tasks from a biological perspective.

Working Memory Capacity of ChatGPT: An Empirical Study

Working memory is a critical aspect of both human intelligence and artificial intelligence, serving as a workspace for the temporary storage and manipulation of information. In this paper, we systematically assess the working memory capacity of ChatGPT, a large language model developed by OpenAI, by examining its performance in verbal and spatial n-back tasks under various conditions. Our experiments reveal that ChatGPT has a working memory capacity limit strikingly similar to that of humans. Furthermore, we investigate the impact of different instruction strategies on ChatGPT's performance and observe that the fundamental patterns of a capacity limit persist. From our empirical findings, we propose that n-back tasks may serve as tools for benchmarking the working memory capacity of large language models and hold potential for informing future efforts aimed at enhancing AI working memory.

Characterizing Computer Aided Design Mastery: What differences exist between expert and novice users?

The goal of this work is to characterize “expert” student CAD use and examine whether differences from novices are related to factors such as gender, seniority, co-op experience, and spatial ability. Participants were recruited from a second-year mechanical engineering course and extra-curricular engineering technical teams. The groups were Novice (Year 2, not on a team, n=13), Junior (Year 2, on a team, n=7), Senior (Year 3+, on a team, n=12). Participants completed a spatial task (PSVT:R, Purdue Spatial Visualization Test) and a CAD task while being asked to describe their process (verbal protocol analysis). Groups were similar in gender composition. The spatial task (PSVT:R) performance was not related to gender, year of study, or use of CAD on co-op. Spatial performance was related to team participation. Two major differences in process were coded. One was references to past work. Seniors were more likely to reference co-op experience than Novices (p=0.03), Juniors were more likely to reference academic work compared to Seniors (p=0.04). The other significant difference was the method used for construction. Seniors were less likely to use a “cut away” approach to making their part than Novices (p=0.004) or Juniors (p=0.002). Seniors were more likely to trace geometry and extrude their part compared to Novices (p=0.004). The difference in referenced prior work presents an opportunity for instructors as many more students participate in co-op than in extra-curricular teams. This could be leveraged by encouraging students to contextualize learning from co-op or by creating industrially-relevant assignments. The difference in approach to creating the object suggests that CAD instructors could be introducing students to higher level tools earlier. This could be done through assignments that authentically demand more complicated geometries.

The effects of chronic morphine administration on spatial memory and microtubule dynamicity in male mice's brain

The examination of the influence of morphine on behavioral processes, specifically learning and memory, holds significant importance. Additionally, microtubule proteins play a pivotal role in cellular functions, and the dynamics of microtubules contribute to neural network connectivity, information processing, and memory storage. however, the molecular mechanism of morphine on microtubule dynamics, learning, and memory remains uncovered. In the present study, we examined the effects of chronic morphine administration on memory formation impairment and the kinetic alterations in microtubule proteins induced by morphine in mice. Chronic morphine administration at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg dose-dependently decreased subjects' performance in spatial memory tasks, such as the Morris Water Maze and Y-maze spontaneous alternation behavior. Furthermore, morphine was found to stabilize microtubule structure, and increase polymerization, and total polymer mass. However, it simultaneously impaired microtubule dynamicity, stemming from structural changes in tubulin dimer structure. These findings emphasize the need for careful consideration of different doses when using morphine, urging a more cautious approach in the administration of this opioid medication.

Gender stereotypes in preschoolers' mental rotation.

The investigation of gender stereotypes constitutes a relevant approach to understanding the development of spatial ability and sex differences in the domain. This was the first study concerned with the presence of implicit and explicit gender stereotypes about spatial ability, and their potential relation to spatial task performance, in preschool-aged children. Our full sample consisted of 138 4- to 6-year-old kindergarten children. The experimental procedure consisted of three parts. Children completed an implicit association task, a short questionnaire on explicit stereotypes, and a chronometric mental rotation task. Preschool-aged children held explicit gender stereotypes about spatial ability linking it to boys rather than girls. Boys exhibited stronger stereotypes in this regard than girls. We also found evidence for the presence of implicit stereotypes. However, implicit stereotypes were not found in sub-group analyses. No clear relationship between stereotypes and mental rotation performance emerged, but our results suggest that implicit stereotyping affected mental rotation accuracy differently in girls compared with boys. Our main conclusion was that children already hold stereotypic beliefs about spatial ability at preschool age. There did not seem to be a relationship of stereotyping with spatial ability at this age.

Influence of Supplementation of Ecklonia cava Polyphenols on Learning, Memory, and Brain Fatty Acid Composition in Mice.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of intake of polyphenols from Ecklonia cava on spatial task performance and nervous fatty acid composition in mice fed with a high-fat diet. Thirty mice were randomly divided into three groups; each group consisted of ten mice. The control group was fed 5% soybean oil as a fat source, whereas the high fat (HF) group was fed a 15% lard diet and the polyphenol (ECP) group was maintained on the HF diet plus 1% E. cava polyphenols. The ECP group exhibited a short escape latency and better memory retention in the Morris water maze test compared with the control and HF groups (P<0.05). In addition, the ECP group showed a greater increase in avoidance latency than that of the HF group (P<0.05). Moreover, the consumption of polyphenols from E. cava presented higher levels of DHA in the brain and retina (P<0.05). This study suggested the positive effects of polyphenols from E. cava on memory retention, which might be partially attributed to the increased levels of DHA in the brain.

Touching the Ground: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Data Physicalizations for Spatial Data Analysis Tasks.

Inspired by recent advances in digital fabrication, artists and scientists have demonstrated that physical data encodings (i.e., data physicalizations) can increase engagement with data, foster collaboration, and in some cases, improve data legibility and analysis relative to digital alternatives. However, prior empirical studies have only investigated abstract data encoded in physical form (e.g., laser cut bar charts) and not continuously sampled spatial data fields relevant to climate and medical science (e.g., heights, temperatures, densities, and velocities sampled on a spatial grid). This paper presents the design and results of the first study to characterize human performance in 3D spatial data analysis tasks across analogous physical and digital visualizations. Participants analyzed continuous spatial elevation data with three visualization modalities: (1) 2D digital visualization; (2) perspective-tracked, stereoscopic "fishtank" virtual reality; and (3) 3D printed data physicalization. Their tasks included tracing paths downhill, looking up spatial locations and comparing their relative heights, and identifying and reporting the minimum and maximum heights within certain spatial regions. As hypothesized, in most cases, participants performed the tasks just as well or better in the physical modality (based on time and error metrics). Additional results include an analysis of open-ended feedback from participants and discussion of implications for further research on the value of data physicalization. All data and supplemental materials are available at https://osf.io/7xdq4/.

Schizophrenia-relevant social, attentional and cognitive traits in female RHA vs. RLA rats: effects of neonatal handling

The Roman high- (RHA) and low-avoidance (RLA) rats were bidirectionally selected and bred for, respectively, their rapid vs. extremely poor acquisition in the two-way active avoidance task. Consistent between-strain neurobehavioural differences have been found in anxiety- and stress-linked traits, as well as in schizophrenia-related phenotypes. RLAs display enhanced anxious- and stress-related phenotypes, whereas RHA rats show impulsivity, hyperactivity and attention/cognition-related impairments. Many of these typical behavioural phenotypes have been reported to be positively modulated by environmental treatments such as neonatal handling (NH). However, most studies on the Roman rat strains have been carried out in males. Thus, the present study for the first time focused on the joint evaluation of differences in novel object exploration (NOE), social interaction (SI), prepulse inhibition of the startle response (PPI), and cognitive performance and flexibility in various spatial tasks (using the Morris water maze, MWM) in females of both Roman rat strains. We also aimed at evaluating the long-lasting effects of NH treatment on the RHA vs. RLA profiles in these tests/tasks. Results show that anxiety-related behavior, as measured by the NOE test and self-grooming in the SI test, was increased in RLA rats, and dramatically reduced by NH. In the SI test RLA rats displayed diminished social interaction, which was rescued by NH. RHA females exhibited a deficit of PPI, which was not affected by NH. Spatial tasks in the MWM showed impairments of working memory, reference learning/memory and spatial reversal learning (i.e., cognitive flexibility) in RHA females. Spatial reference learning and cognitive flexibility (i.e., reversal task) showed some improvement in rats (mainly in RHAs) that had received NH during the first three weeks of life. With the exception of the SI test, the pattern of differences between female RHA vs. RLA profiles was overall consistent with what has previously been found in males of both strains, and NH treatment was able to enduringly improve some emotion-related and (spatial) cognitive outcomes in both strains.

PEDOT-Citrate/SIKVAV modified bioaffinity microelectrode arrays for detecting theta rhythm cells in the retrosplenial cortex of rats under sensory conflict

In scenarios where visual and vestibular inputs are dissociated, humans’ spatial cognitive and task performance can deteriorate. To investigate the neural basis, microelectrode arrays (MEA) with good chronic recording performance are needed. In this study, we proposed a novel approach to modify alkaline laminin onto neural electrodes and constructed an MEA using laminin (SIKVAV) modified for single-neuron tracking detecting. The modified interface has excellent hydrophilicity and biocompatibility and is conducive to enhancing the adhesion of neurons. Moreover, the MEAs exhibits excellent performance on signal-to-noise ratio, neuron detection amount, and neuron tracking effects in chronic recording experiment. Utilizing this tool, we record the electrophysiological activities in the rats' brains under sensory conflict. We observed an apparent response of pyramidal neurons to sensory conflict. Notably, this conflict disrupted the theta rhythmic firing of theta cells and local field potentials (LFP) theta oscillations in the retrosplenial cortex (RSC), which is associated with cognition, and both required a certain amount of time for recovery. This study provides a method for chronic detection of neurons in vivo and reveals part of the mechanism of cognitive impairment of patients with sensory conflict, which may provide theoretical support for future treatment strategies.

Spatial Memory of BIM and Virtual Reality: Mental Mapping Study

Acquiring accurate spatial memory is critical to many architecture, engineering, construction, and facilities maintenance (AECFM) tasks. The literature has recognized that spatial memory (i.e., the memory of locations and spatial relationships) quality can be affected primarily by visualization methods, i.e., the formats in which spatial information is visualized and presented. In addition to traditional two-dimensional (2D) drawings, emerging visualization methods, such as building information modeling (BIM)-based models and virtual reality (VR), provide more options to visualize complex spatial information in an immersive and interactive way. Although it is well recognized that new visualization methods can benefit performance in many spatial tasks (i.e., tasks that rely or partially rely on spatial memory), there is a lack of explicit evidence about how they affect spatial memory development. Many studies used spatial task performance and spatial memory quality interchangeably, which actually are distinct. This paper presents findings of a mental mapping method (i.e., hand sketching the memorized locations and spatial relationships) to directly measure a person’s spatial memory quality of different building components and layouts. First, a human-subject experiment (n=63) was performed in which participants were instructed to review a building model with varying visualization methods [2D, BIM-based three-dimensional (3D), and VR]. Then participants were required to sketch the memorized building landmarks and layouts as an explicit measure of the spatial memory quality, followed by an inspection task in the real building. The result showed a significant impact of visualization methods on the quality of spatial memory, which was not correlated with the inspection performance. The findings suggest that explicit mental mapping measures instead of final task performance are needed for evaluating spatial memory in AECFM tasks.

Spatial orientation: A relationship with inferential memory

Two branches of the scientific literature have dominated our understanding of hippocampal function. One focuses on the support this structure offers to declarative memory, while the other views the hippocampus as a part of a system dedicated to spatial navigation. These two different visions can be reconciled in relational theory, which suggests that the hippocampus processes all kinds of associations and sequences of events. According to this, processing would be similar to a route calculation based on associations of spatial information acquired during navigation and the associative relationship established between memories without spatial content. In this paper, we present a behavioral study of healthy individuals to explore the performance of inferential memory tasks and spatial orientation tasks in a virtual environment. Inferential memory and spatial orientation task performances were positively correlated. However, after controlling for a non-inferential memory task, only the correlation between allocentric spatial orientation and inferential memory remained significant. These results provide support for the similarity between the two cognitive functions, lending credence to the relational theory of the hippocampus. Additionally, our behavioral findings are in line with the cognitive map theory, which suggests a potential association between the hippocampus and allocentric spatial representations.

Neonatal intermittent hypoxia-dependent oxidative stress prevents NMDAr subunit remodeling during the critical period producing deficits in synaptic plasticity and spatial memory during adulthood

Early postnatal life represents a critical window of brain development that sets the foundation for neurophysiology later in adulthood. Apneas of Prematurity (AoP) is clinical condition that can emerge in neonates born less than 34 weeks and is hypothesized to have long-lasting impact on neurocognition. Untreated AoP produces periodic cessations in breathing leading to neonatal intermittent hypoxia (nIH). The objective of this study is to investigate how nIH impacts NMDAr-dependent synaptic plasticity during and following the critical period of development. To test this, neonatal mice (P4-5) were exposed to ten days of nIH. Biochemical analyses immediately following nIH, revealed that nIH caused oxidative stress corresponding with a greater GluN2B:GluN2A subunit ratio in the hippocampus. These effects were accompanied by a reduced contribution of GluN2A to LTP. Administration of the antioxidant MnTMPyP during nIH prevented these changes. In adult mice, six weeks after exposure to nIH, deficits in behavioral performance in spatial memory tasks were evident. These neurocognitive changes, correlated with a persistent increase in the GluN2B:GluN2A ratio and dysregulated LTP in the adult hippocampus. Administration of MnTMPyP, following nIH was not effective in mitigating the effects observed during adulthood. Our findings suggest that a narrow interventional window exists for mitigating oxidative stress that drive nIH‑dependent changes in hippocampal physiology and spatial memory during adulthood. This work was supported by NIH: R01NS107421 This work was supported by NIH: R01NS107421 This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2023 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Pausing and reorienting behaviors enhance the performance of a spatial working memory task

During spatial working memory tasks, animals need to retain information about a previous trial in order to successfully select their next trajectory. Specifically, the delayed non-match to position task requires rats to follow a cued sample trajectory, then select the opposite route after a delay period. When faced with this choice, rats will occasionally exhibit complex behaviors, such as pausing and sweeping their head back and forth. These behaviors, called vicarious trial and error (VTE), are thought to be a behavioral manifestation of deliberation. However, we identified similarly complex behaviors during sample-phase traversals, despite the fact that these laps do not require a decision. First, we identified that these behaviors occurred more often after incorrect trials than before them, indicating that rats are retaining information between trials. Next, we determined that these pause-and-reorient (PAR) behaviors increased the likelihood of the next choice being selected correctly, suggesting that these behaviors assist the rat in successful task performance. Finally, we identified similarities between PARs and choice-phase VTEs, suggesting that VTEs may not only be reflective of deliberation, but may also contribute to a strategy for successful performance of spatial working memory tasks.

Repeated performance of spatial memory tasks ameliorates cognitive decline in APP/PS1 mice

BackgroundAlzheimer's disease (AD) is a burden on the public health system because it is a neurodegenerative disease that is incurable and for which there is no successful treatment. AD patients suffer from symptoms for many years, with progressive loss of cognitive and functional abilities. In addition to the features of AD, described as amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, neuroinflammatory processes, genetic factors, and lifestyle also play important roles. Increasing evidence for lifestyle factors includes possible changes due to smoking, social engagement, and physical activity. MethodsMorris water maze behavioral tasks were performed to analyze the formation of spatial memory. APPswe/PS1dE9 mice with a remarkable increase in amyloid-β production associated with certain behavioral abnormalities comparable to AD symptoms and age-matched wild-type littermates were trained several times at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age and compared with untrained groups at 9 and 12 months of age. Performance during the acquisition phase, in the reference memory test, and in searching strategies were analyzed. Results9- and 12-month-old APP/PS1 mice showed cognitive impairment, especially in the reference memory test and searching strategies. This cognitive deterioration was reversed in 9- and 12-month-old APP/PS1 mice that had been previously trained several times. Even in the reversal test, in which memory formation must be adapted to the new platform position, several trained APP/PS1 mice performed better. ConclusionRepeated spatial memory training in the water maze showed positive effects on memory formation in APP/PS1 mice. Interestingly, the cohort that had been previously trained several times was able to use increased hippocampus-dependent strategies, similar to the WT mice. This may suggest that cognitively demanding and physically active tasks can improve cognitive function.

Examination of Diurnal Variation and Sex Differences in Hippocampal Neurophysiology and Spatial Memory.

Circadian rhythms are biological processes that cycle across 24 h and regulate many facets of neurophysiology, including learning and memory. Circadian variation in spatial memory task performance is well documented; however, the effect of sex across circadian time (CT) remains unclear. Additionally, little is known regarding the impact of time-of-day on hippocampal neuronal physiology. Here, we investigated the influence of both sex and time-of-day on hippocampal neurophysiology and memory in mice. Performance on the object location memory (OLM) task depended on both circadian time and sex, with memory enhanced at night in males but during the day in females. Long-term synaptic potentiation (LTP) magnitude at CA3-CA1 synapses was greater at night compared with day in both sexes. Next, we measured spontaneous synaptic excitation and inhibition onto CA1 pyramidal neurons. Frequency and amplitude of inhibition was greater during the day compared with night, regardless of sex. Frequency and amplitude of excitation was larger in females, compared with males, independent of time-of-day, although both time-of-day and sex influenced presynaptic release probability. At night, CA1 pyramidal neurons showed enhanced excitability (action potential firing and/or baseline potential) that was dependent on synaptic excitation and inhibition, regardless of sex. This study emphasizes the importance of sex and time-of-day in hippocampal physiology, especially given that many neurologic disorders impacting the hippocampus are linked to circadian disruption and present differently in men and women. Knowledge about how sex and circadian rhythms affect hippocampal physiology can improve the translational relevancy of therapeutics and inform the appropriate timing of existing treatments.

NRSF regulates age-dependently cognitive ability and its conditional knockout in APP/PS1 mice moderately alters AD-like pathology.

NRSF/REST (neuron-restrictive silencer element, also known as repressor element 1-silencing transcription factor), plays a key role in neuronal homeostasis as a transcriptional repressor of neuronal genes. NRSF/REST relates to cognitive preservation and longevity of humans, but its specific functions in age-dependent and Alzheimer's disease (AD)-related memory deficits remain unclear. Here, we show that conditional NRSF/REST knockout either in the dorsal telencephalon or specially in neurons induced an age-dependently diminished retrieval performance in spatial or fear conditioning memory tasks and altered hippocampal synaptic transmission and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. The NRSF/REST deficient mice were also characterized by an increase of activated glial cells, complement C3 protein and the transcription factor C/EBPβ in the cortex and hippocampus. Reduction of NRSF/REST by conditional depletion upregulated the activation of astrocytes in APP/PS1 mice, and increased the C3-positive glial cells, but did not alter the Aβ loads and memory retrieval performances of 6- and 12-month-old APP/PS1 mice. Simultaneously, overexpression of NRSF/REST improved cognitive abilities of aged wild type, but not in AD mice. These findings demonstrated that NRSF/REST is essential for the preservation of memory performance and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity during aging and takes potential roles in the onset of age-related memory impairments. However, while altering the glial activation, NRSF/REST deficiency does not interfere with the Aβ deposits and the electrophysiological and cognitive AD-like pathologies.

The impact of data sonification in virtual reality robot teleoperation

Virtual Reality (VR) is being increasingly used to provide a more intuitive and embodied approach to robotic teleoperation, giving operators a sense of presence in the remote environment. Prior research has shown that presence can be enhanced when additional sensory cues such as sound are introduced. Data sonification is the use of non-speech audio to convey information and, in the context of VR robot teleoperation, it has the potential to 1) improve task performance by enhancing an operator’s sense of presence and 2) reduce task load by spreading data between sensory modalities. Here we present a novel study methodology to investigate how the design of data sonification impacts on these important metrics and other key measures of user experience, such as stress. We examine a nuclear decommissioning application of robotic teleoperation where the benefits of VR in terms of spatial reasoning and task performance are desirable. However, as the operational environment is hazardous, a sense of presence may not be desirable as it can lead to heightened operator stress. We conduct a study in which we compare the effects of diegetic sounds (literal and established sonifications) with abstract sounds (non-established sonifications). Our findings show that the diegetic sounds decrease workload, whereas abstract sounds increase workload, and are more stressful. Additionally, and contrary to expectations, sonification does not impact presence. These findings have implications for the design of sonic environments in virtual reality.

Development of Spatial Orientation in Two-to-Three-Year-Old Children in Relation to Lifestyle Factors.

Various lifestyle factors, including diet, physical activity, and sleep, have been studied in the context of children’s health. However, how these lifestyle factors contribute to the development of cognitive abilities, including spatial cognition, remains vastly understudied. One landmark in spatial cognitive development occurs between 2.5 and 3 years of age. For spatial orientation at that age, children learn to use allocentric reference frames (using spatial relations between objects as the primary reference frame) in addition to, the already acquired, egocentric reference frames (using one’s own body as the primary reference frame). In the current virtual reality study in a sample of 30–36-month-old toddlers (N = 57), we first demonstrated a marginally significant developmental shift in spatial orientation. Specifically, task performance with allocentric performance increased relative to egocentric performance (ηp2 = 0.06). Next, we explored a variety of lifestyle factors, including diet, in relation to task performance, to explain individual differences. Screen time and gestational weight gain of the mother were negatively associated with spatial task performance. The findings presented here can be used to guide future confirmatory studies about the role of lifestyle factors in the development of spatial cognition.