Perfectionistic Discrepancy Research Articles

A study into the mental health of PhD students in Australia: investigating the determinants of depression, anxiety, and suicidality.

PhD students are particularly vulnerable to experiencing poor mental health. Mental health concerns that arise during their studies can not only affect their study progress but also have long-lasting impacts on their mental health after their studies. Extensive research has been conducted on the mental health of university students, but few studies have focused on PhD students and even fewer on PhD students in Australia. The present study investigated demographic, occupational, psychological, social, and relational determinants of mental health symptoms (depression, anxiety, and suicidality) in PhD students in Australia. PhD students enrolled in Australian universities were invited to complete an online survey. Results from regression analyses identified key determinants of mental health symptoms in our sample of PhD students (N = 302). In particular, higher levels of imposter thoughts, perfectionism discrepancy, and loneliness were strong predictors of depression, anxiety, and suicidality. These findings contribute to our understanding of the mental health of PhD students in Australia. Importantly, these findings inform areas of focus where potential strategies can be implemented to better protect the mental health of this population. For example, strategies that mitigate loneliness or foster effective, collaborative student-supervisor relationships.

The influence of competitiveness trait on attitudes toward memory implants: exploring the mediating role of perfectionism discrepancy

The influence of competitiveness trait on attitudes toward memory implants: exploring the mediating role of perfectionism discrepancy

Trajectories of unrealistic optimism in grade expectation: A latent growth mixture model

This study examined the heterogeneity in temporal shifts of unrealistic optimism (UO) by analyzing students’ grade expectation throughout a semester. UO was defined as the gap between students’ estimated and current course grades, with a larger gap indicating higher UO. Final course grades were viewed as the outcome of UO. A total of 206 participants completed baseline measures of personal factors during the first week of the semester and repeated measurements at five subsequent time points. Using person-centered trajectory analysis (e.g., latent growth mixture models), we identified three distinct UO trajectories: UO-Persistent (6.8%; consistently high UO), UO-Decreasing (26.2%; diminishing UO), and Realistic (67.0%; consistently low UO). High perfectionistic standards and dysphoria predicted UO-Persistent group membership, while perfectionistic discrepancy, self-efficacy, and belief in optimism's power did not. The Realistic group achieved higher final grades than the UO-Decreasing group. Unexpectedly, no difference was found in final grades between the strongest UO group (i.e., UO-Persistent) and other two groups. These findings suggest that UO's temporal shift is not a unitary construct, and distinct UO patterns may be associated with different academic outcomes. This study underscores the significance of comprehending temporal shifts and employing person-centered analysis in UO related to academic achievement. The discussion addresses both research and practical implications.

The Influence of Perfectionism, Self-Esteem and Resilience on Young People’s Mental Health

ABSTRACT The current study explored whether maladaptive perfectionism and low self-esteem constituted reliable risk factors of student mental illness, as well as determining whether resilience moderates these predictive relationships. 434 University undergraduate students were recruited. Depression and anxiety were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder Assessment (GAD-7). Perfectionism, self-esteem and resilience were analyzed in relation to the PHQ9 and GAD-7 scores via a regression analysis. Perfectionism discrepancy, self-esteem and resilience all significantly predicted depression and anxiety. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed a statistically significant amount of additional variance to be explained by resilience for depression and anxiety, than for perfectionism and self-esteem alone. Maladaptive perfectionism and low self-esteem predispose an individual to depression and anxiety, though resilience may act as a protective factor against development of mental illness.

Perfectionism, Stress, and the Entry-Level Doctor of Physical Therapy Student: A Cross-Sectional, Observational Study

Introduction. Perfectionism consists of high standards and hypercritical self-evaluation. Some doctor of physical therapy (DPT) students experience increased stress levels due to rigorous academic expectations. There is limited understanding of how successful these students are at managing increased stress, especially among perfectionists. The purpose was to examine perfectionism among entry-level DPT students and its relationship to perceived stress. Review of Literature. Researchers have studied perfectionism and stress in health professions programs, but not DPT programs. Being a Maladaptive Perfectionist (MP) was positively and strongly associated with stress among health professions students. Subjects. Convenience sample of first-year, second-year, and third-year DPT students (n = 163). Methods. This was a nonexperimental, single-site, cross-sectional study. Investigators used 3-way analysis of variance to compare student characteristics and binomial logistic regressions to determine whether characteristic and/or perceived stress was predictive of perfectionism subtype. They completed bivariate correlations to determine associations between perfectionism and stress. Results. Sample results demonstrated 41.10% Adaptive Perfectionists and 25.15% MPs. There was a moderate, direct association between perceived stress and the perfectionism discrepancy measure (r s = .51, P < .01). The perceived stress and perfectionism subtype logistic regression model was statistically significant, χ2(1) = 18.73, P < .01. Participants with increased perceived stress had 1.17 times higher odds of being categorized as an MP than those with lower stress levels. Discussion and Conclusion. Maladaptive Perfectionist students may be at greater risk for stress-related issues. Perfectionism and stress measures may assist educators in identifying at-risk students, monitor student response to stress management interventions, and consider curricular changes to lower stress. Students who effectively manage stress may ultimately have overall greater well-being.

Traits of pathological narcissism and dysfunctional eating in women: The role of perfectionistic discrepancy

Dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors are very common among women. Recent findings suggest that these attitudes are linked to traits of pathological narcissism. However, mechanisms underlying this association need to be elucidated. We investigated the relationship between traits of pathological narcissism and dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors in women, testing whether perfectionistic tendencies mediate this association. The study involved a community-based sample of women (N = 306) who completed measures of grandiose and vulnerable narcissistic traits, attitudes of perfectionistic discrepancy and perfectionistic self-presentation, and dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Results show that vulnerable narcissistic traits are linked to dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Moreover, discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self partially explains why women high in vulnerable narcissism engage in dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Grandiose narcissism was not uniquely associated with dysfunctional eating. The study suggests that the narcissistic need for being perfect, but not the narcissistic need for presenting oneself as perfect to others, promotes dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors in women.

Perfectionism discrepancy and falling short of the ideal self: Investigating drinking motives and impaired control on the road to alcohol-related problems.

Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins, 1987) predicts that the difference between the ideal and the actual self will be associated with impaired-control-over-drinking (IC; dysregulated drinking beyond one's own limits) as well as alcohol-related-problems. According to Slaney et al. (2001) perfectionism is a multi-faceted personality trait which represents both adaptive (e.g. high-standards) and maladaptive (e.g. discrepancy) aspects. In particular, discrepancy has been associated with poorer coping approaches, which may suggest a Self-Medication route to IC. Yet, to date, no one has examined whether drinking-motives (e.g., social, enhancement, coping and conformity) mediate the relations between discrepancy and high standards and alcohol-outcomes such as IC. We used a structural equation model to test indirect associations of discrepancy and high-standards to both heavy-episodic-drinking and alcohol-related-problems through the mediating mechanisms of drinking-motives and IC. Results supported the distinction between discrepancy and high-standards consistent with the Self-Medication Hypothesis (Hersh & Hussong, 2009). Discrepancy was associated with poorer alcohol-outcomes through greater coping-motives, conformity-motives and IC. In contrast, higher-standards were associated with fewer alcohol-outcomes through less coping-motives, conformity-motives, and IC. This study illustrates the importance of personality factors such as discrepancy in the development of problematic alcohol-use suggesting that it might be a good target for intervention.

Perfectionism and self-medication as mediators of the links between parenting styles and drinking outcomes

ObjectivePerfectionism reflects unreasonably high expectations for oneself that are rarely obtainable leading to negative affect. The self-medication model suggests that alcohol consumption is negatively reinforced and subsequently escalated due to reductions in negative affect when drinking (Hersh & Hussong, 2009). Wang (2010) found that parents directly influence perfectionism levels. Parents have also been found to indirectly influence alcohol-related problems (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006, 2009). The current study sought to examine the indirect effects of parenting on alcohol-related problems and alcohol use quantity/frequency through perfectionism dimensions, (i.e. order, discrepancy, and high standards) depression, and self-medication motives for drinking. We hypothesized that more critical parenting and perfectionism discrepancy would be associated with heavier drinking by increasing depressive symptoms and promoting drinking for negative reinforcement. MethodA structural equation model with 419 university volunteers was utilized to test our mediational hypotheses. ResultsThe analyses identified an indirect link between maternal authoritarian parenting and alcohol-related problems operating through perfectionism discrepancy. Higher levels of maternal authoritarian parenting were associated with greater perfectionism discrepancy which contributed to higher levels of depression, and in turn, stronger self-medication motives, as well as more alcohol-related problems. ConclusionsMaternal authoritarian parenting style is directly linked to perfectionism discrepancy along the self-medication pathway to alcohol-related problems. Our results suggest that the reduction of perfectionism discrepancy may be a good therapeutic target for depression as well as inform the development of parent or individual based prevention efforts to reduce risk for alcohol-related problems.

Imposter syndrome among Russian students: The link between perfectionism and psychological distress

Imposter syndrome is feeling incompetent despite evidence of competence. It is characterized by the inability to internalize one's status and success, which causes much emotional distress. People with imposter syndrome fear that others will eventually find out that they are frauds and thus feel that they do not belong in their academic or working environment despite objective qualifications, achievements, and accomplishments. Perfectionism has been linked to imposter syndrome due to a tendency to focus on one's inadequacies. In this study, participants were 169 Russian college students. Mediating and moderating effects of imposter syndrome on the link between perfectionism and psychological distress were examined. Results indicated that imposter syndrome fully mediated the link between perfectionism and anxiety, whereas it served as a partial mediator between perfectionism and depression. A significant moderation effect of imposter syndrome was found between the link of perfectionism and depressive mood. In sum, it appears that if a person does not fall into the imposter mindset, the positive link between perfectionistic discrepancy and depression no longer exists. Results of this study identify imposter syndrome as a point of intervention to prevent depression caused by perfectionism.

Perfectionism as a Predictor of Anxiety in Foreign Language Classrooms among Russian College Students

This study examined perfectionism as a multidimensional personality factor which influences foreign language learning and classroom anxiety. Hierarchical regression analyses confirmed that the two dimensions of perfectionism, adaptive and maladaptive, relate to Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA) differently. After controlling for the effects of general anxiety, perceptions of academic performance, and self-reported English fluency, perfectionistic discrepancy (maladaptive aspect) was a significant predictor of FLCA; perfectionistic standards (adaptive aspect) was not. Measures indicated that this multidimensional nature of perfectionism affects Russian students in the context of foreign language classroom anxiety. Implications regarding the prevention and intervention of maladaptive perfectionism among students are discussed, as well as directions for future studies. These findings are important for teachers, students, and experts who may interact with FLCA and perfectionism as well as those who may personally experience it. The possible strategies to reduce anxiety could include discussing unrealistic beliefs and expectations with reference to foreign language learning, accepting mistakes as an integral part of foreign language learning as well as coaching.

Family Income, Perfectionism and Social Anxiety among Higher Education Students

University students are members of the youth community who have enormous potential to contribute towards the development of the country. The health and wellbeing of students are reflected in their low social anxiety and perfectionism. Family SES factors such as income also affect social fears and aviodance and influence the adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism among university students. This study, conducted using the survey method was performed on 1618 university students aged 18 – 25 year across Malaysia selected via a multistage stratified sampling as respondents. A self administered questionaire containing demographic information and the Almost Perfect Scale- Revised (Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001), and Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (Heimberg et al.,1999), to tap on perfectionism, and social anxiety was used for data collection. Results of this study found that slightly more than half of the respondents scored higher than the mid-point of perfectionism standard, indicating high level of perfectionism standard (M = 36.55, SD = 6.31). However, slightly more than half of the respondents scored lower than the mid-point of the remaining study variables, suggesting low levels of perfectionism discrepancy (M = 56.36, SD = 10.81), fear social anxiety (M = 28.36, SD = 12.70), and avoidance social anxiety (M = 26.00, SD = 12.36). As for social anxiety, majority have moderate fear and avoidance while 5.6% have severe fear and 3.8% reported severe avoidance social anxiety. The results show that majority of students in Institutions of Higher Learning (IHL) have positive social outlook and low maladaptive perfectionism personalities even though the family SES is at a moderate level. The implications of the study findings on family roles are also discussed in this article.

The Relationship Among Stigma Consciousness, Perfectionism, and Mental Health in Engaging and Retaining STEM Women

As research on retention for working women matures, it is necessary to identify particular factors that influence work satisfaction for women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This study collected data on 249 women who had worked 11.51 years on average in STEM. To investigate retention, we modeled the relationship between perfectionism, depression, and stigma consciousness on work engagement and intention-to-leave one’s job using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Depression, stigma consciousness, and perceived lack of comparable pay positively predicted greater intent to leave one’s job, with a perfectionistic mind-set representing a nonsignificant predictor. In terms of reported work engagement, depression, perfectionistic discrepancy, and stigma consciousness were significant negative predictors, while having perfectionistic high standards positively predicted work engagement. For work engagement, lack of comparable pay was a nonsignificant predictor. Implications and future directions for culturally responsive and intersectional research on the psychological and occupational functioning of STEM women are discussed.

Addressing Concerns About How Perfectionistic Discrepancy Should Be Measured With the Revised Almost Perfect Scale.

We examine the conceptual and empirical merits of concerns Flett et al. recently raised about the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R), specifically that items on the APS-R Discrepancy should be separated into a "Pure" Discrepancy factor and a Dissatisfaction factor. Limitations in the logic and findings of that critique are summarized. We replicate and extend Flett et al.'s study with results from two samples: (a) college freshmen STEM students ( N = 279) and (b) doctoral students in a national sample ( N = 529). Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the alternative measurement models could be fit to the data, but were not practical improvements over the original APS-R factor model: Alternative discrepancy factors failed to demonstrate discriminant validity, nor did they have meaningfully different patterns of associations with numerous criterion variables (i.e., stress, emotion regulation, rumination, adult attachment, and life satisfaction). Thus, a data-based answer to the question of how perfectionistic discrepancy should be assessed is to stay the course with confidence using the original APS-R.

The Effects of Helicopter Parenting on Academic Motivation

There is a growing concern that overinvolved, helicopter parenting may have negative consequences for college students’ well-being and academic achievement. The goal of this study was to examine the effects of helicopter parenting on constructs related to academic achievement and success such as motivation for learning, perfectionism, and entitlement. Survey data are presented from 192 college students and their mothers (N = 121). Children’s report of maternal helicopter parenting was related to extrinsic motivation to learn, perfectionistic discrepancy, and avoidance goals for learning, which have been associated with lower academic performance in prior research. Mother’s report of helicopter parenting was related to children’s sense of entitlement. This study suggests that helicopter parenting is related to maladaptive academic motivations that may have negative implications for academic achievement.

The Relationship between Family Perfectionism Discrepancy and Depression: Personal Perfectionism and Resilience as Mediators

The Relationship between Family Perfectionism Discrepancy and Depression: Personal Perfectionism and Resilience as Mediators

Perfectionism in gifted students: Moderating effects of goal orientation and contingent self-worth.

We examined the moderating effects of mastery goals and academic contingency of self-worth (CSW-A) on how perfectionistic discrepancy associates with academic efficacy and satisfaction with life among gifted students in middle and high school. Participants in this study were 144 gifted students from 6th to 12th grade in a suburban Midwest U.S. school district. A significant three-way interaction effect was found among discrepancy, mastery goals, and CSW-A on academic self-efficacy. The findings suggest that having high mastery goals served as a protective factor against the negative impact of discrepancy on academic efficacy for gifted students, but only for those with low CSW-A. For gifted students with elevated CSW-A, discrepancy was not negatively associated with academic self-efficacy, regardless of their level of mastery goals. The implications for these findings are discussed.

Multidimensional perfectionism, depression and relational health in women with eating disturbances

ObjectiveThis study investigated multidimensional perfectionism, depression, and relational health and quality across varying severities of eating disorders. The Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Mintz, O'Halloran, Mulholland, & Schneider, 1997) was used to distinguish clinical, subclinical, and asymptomatic groupings. MethodThe sample included 212 women recruited from a university and an eating disorder treatment center. ResultsResults indicated significant differences across all the three groups on perfectionistic discrepancy. All three groups also differed on their level of depressive mood. However, there were no significant group differences on relational health and quality. DiscussionThis study contributes to the understanding of intrapersonal and interpersonal correlates of eating disorders and subclinical eating disturbances. This understanding allows for better identification of vulnerability to eating disorders and offers the potential to design more specialized and effective treatments.

Perfectionism and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

This study was designed to determine whether perfectionism, as assessed by the revised almost perfect scale (APS-R; R. B. Slaney, M. Mobley, J. Trippi, J. S. Ashby, & D. G. Johnson, 1996), was a significant predictor of obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms in a non-clinical sample of 308 university students. Perfectionistic discrepancy emerged as a general predictor of obsessive thought difficulties and compulsive checking behavior. Excessive concerns about making mistakes also emerged as a significant specific predictor of obsessive cognitive but not behavioral symptoms after other dimensions of perfectionism were controlled. An interaction effect indicated that students with high discrepancy but low standards were more likely to experience OC-related washing symptoms than other students. The general effects of perfectionism on OC symptoms, the specific effects of certain perfectionism dimensions over others, and other perfectionism research results, implicate APS-R discrepancy as a core dimension of maladaptive perfectionism and APS-R high standards as either benign or protective in the associations with OC symptoms.

State dependence and trait stability of perfectionism: A short-term longitudinal study.

The authors examined state dependency on depression, trait stability, and state-trait characteristics of perfectionism in a short-term longitudinal study of university students. Relative stability of perfectionism was assessed with test-retest correlations across 3 time points, and results showed higher rank order and relative stability for perfectionism scores compared with depression scores. Regression and path analyses to disentangle directions of effects revealed that initial maladaptive perfectionism scores remained robust predictors of later perfectionism scores, even after the authors controlled for prior and concurrent depression and other dimensions of perfectionism. Perfectionism proved to be quite stable and was a significant predictor of later depression. Perfectionism was also not meaningfully altered by state changes in depression. The overall findings indicate that perfectionism appears to have substantial relative stability, and perfectionistic discrepancy in particular is a clear vulnerability factor for depression.