Peregrine Research Articles

Climate Change and Its Impacts on Saker (Falco cherrug) and Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) Falcons: How the Changes Will Affect Their Migration, Diet, Offspring, and Conservation Efforts

Climate change is considered as a real danger to many birds including raptors such as the Saker falcons (Falco cherrug) and Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus). This article answers the question of how climate change shifts the migration, feeding, and breeding habits of these raptors. These migratory birds keep facing disturbances in their yearly cycle due to recent changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and pollution. This results in changes in the migration points, as they travel for longer or shorter distances, especially to make their nestlings, and changes in their prey availability, affecting their migration pattern. Also, air pollution affected them significantly, where mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) levels in their feathers were significantly high. Fortunately, it has not affected their general health yet. As for their reproduction success, it was interrupted, making it necessary to take conservation initiatives and tactics to save these species amid climate-induced alterations by analyzing ecological interconnections and evolutionary mechanisms. The findings highlight the necessity of mitigating climate change effects on migrating raptors to guarantee their survival rate is high and satisfy ecological system equilibrium.

Desain Taman Atap pada Gedung SMP Pesat Bogor Berdasarkan Preferensi Pengguna

The increasing rate of urbanization on limited urban land has resulted in reduced Green Open Space (RTH) in urban areas. Therefore, the design of a roof garden on a school building can be a solution to increase the area of ​​green open space and a place for outdoor learning activities. This study aims to analyze the potential and constraints on the site so that a roof garden design can be developed according to user preferences. The stages of work refer to Booth (1983) which consist of project acceptance, research/analysis, concepts, and construction drawings. The design concept applied is inspired by the organically formed Falco peregrinus. The results of this study are in the form of a roof garden site plan as well as detailed pictures of the facilities used in the roof garden of building 3 SMP-SMA-SMK Informatika Pesat. The results of the study are expected to create a roof garden on a school building that can function as green open space and a refreshing area as well as a teaching and learning area.

Peregrine Falcon: Design and Experimentation of a Folding and Launchable Quadcopter Drone

Peregrine Falcon: Design and Experimentation of a Folding and Launchable Quadcopter Drone

Spontaneous Wing Tip Edema in Captive Birds of Prey: Review of 41 Cases in the United Kingdom (2004-2022).

There is limited literature regarding wing tip edema (WTE) in raptors, and much of our current understanding of the condition is based on anecdotal reports. The aims of this retrospective study were to describe the clinical features of WTE in birds of prey, to identify prognostic factors for return to flight and patient survival following diagnosis, and to develop and assess the clinical significance of a novel WTE grading system. Between 2004 and 2022, 41 cases of WTE were identified in 39 captive birds. No cases were found in wild birds. Harris's hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus), lanner falcons (Falco biarmicus), and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) had the highest frequencies of WTE, and all cases presented between October and May. Increasing days of air frost per month and colder median monthly temperatures were significant risk factors for the development of WTE. Of the cases where patient outcomes were known, 23/31 (74.2%) cases returned to normal flight and 29/34 (85.3%) cases survived. End-stage disease, represented by primary flight feather loss and metacarpal ischemic (dry) gangrene, and enalapril use were associated with poor patient outcomes. Presentation within 24 hours of disease onset, isoxsuprine use, and physiotherapy were associated with improved patient outcomes. This study showed that WTE is an infrequently encountered but clinically significant condition in captive raptors and is associated with an overall high morbidity and moderate mortality risk.

Hemoparasites identified in birds of prey in the mesoregion of Triangulo Mineiro, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Hemoparasitosis are common in birds of prey and cause changes in reproductive status and therefore susceptibility to predator attacks. This work evaluated the prevalence of hemoparasites in those birds in the region of Triangulo Mineiro, Brazil. Were analyzed 55 birds of the orders Accipitriformes (n=12), Falconiformes (n=11), Strigiformes (n=21) and Cathartiformes (n=11) allocated in Federal University of Uberlandia and Hospital Veterinário de Uberaba. Parasitological analyses were performed on the blood smear, confirming parasitism in 78,18% (43/55) of the animals. Accipitriformes showed statistically lower parasitism (33,3% - 4/12) than Falconiformes (90,9 – 10/11). Plasmodium spp. Infection was observed in 43 birds (78,18%), and one (2,32%) mixed infection with Babesia spp. and Plasmodium spp. No hemoparasites were observed in the species Elanus leucurus and Falco peregrinus. We conclude that the birds evaluated showed a high rate of parasitism by Plasmodium spp. and Caracara plancus had an unprecedented infection by Babesia spp. It suggested studies for identification, taxonomic and epidemiological.

Food supplementing peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius) nests increase reproductive success with no change in mean parental provisioning rate.

Parents are expected to exhibit intermediate levels of investment in parental care that reflect the trade-off between current versus future reproduction. Providing parents with supplemental food may allow for increased care to the current brood (additive model), re-allocation of parental effort to other behaviours such as self-maintenance (substitution model), or may provide parents with a buffer against provisioning shortfalls (insurance model). We investigated the impact of parental food supplementation on provisioning behaviour and breeding success in Arctic-breeding peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus tundrius) over five successive breeding seasons (2013-2017). We found that supplemental feeding had no impact on mean provisioning rates, yet resulted in increased nestling survival probability, increased nestling body mass and decreased variance in nestling body mass and provisioning rates. These results are consistent with parents adopting a hybrid of the additive and substitution models. We suggest that food supplementation enables increased investment in other forms of parental care (e.g. nest defence, brooding) without altering mean provisioning rates. The lack of observed effects on mean provisioning rates, coupled with increased survival and body mass of offspring, suggests a potential reallocation of parental effort. The findings contribute to understanding the responses of peregrine falcons to food supplementation, highlighting the need for future studies to explore broader environmental contexts and potential long-term effects on parental survival and future reproduction.

HEMATOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY REFERENCE INTERVALS FOR FREE-LIVING ADULT LESSER KESTRELS (FALCO NAUMANNI) IN SOUTHERN ITALY.

The lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) is a small falcon with a Euro-Central and Asian-Mediterranean range wintering in sub-Saharan Africa. In the second half of the 20th century, the European population experienced a steep decline and was classified as at risk; thus, its biological and ecological aspects have been widely investigated. Nonetheless, data on hematology and plasma chemistry are not yet available. Therefore, hematology and biochemistry parameters were investigated in a sampling population of clinically healthy lesser kestrels (21 female and 10 male adults) from an Italian rescue center during breeding season, estimating the 95% (2.5 - 97.5th percentile) reference intervals (RI) for standard tests based on either parametric or robust statistical methods. The effect of sex on the referenced parameters was also tested and showed no statically significant differences. The established 95% RI highlighted values comparable with those of other similar raptors such as American kestrel (Falco sparverius) and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). As the first recorded hematology and serum chemistry RI, these clinical data could support conservation efforts and clarify the effects of various environmental and ecological factors on the clinical and health status of lesser kestrels, although they should be reinforced with further data from healthy wild animals.

On the tail of two species: The changing place of the peregrine falcon in society

Abstract Wildlife conservation can become contentious when human interests are impinged. For peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) in the United Kingdom, their iconic status as a protected species is contested by pigeon racers and falconers restrained by strict wildlife policies. However, even entrenched conservation policies can shift, sparking controversy. This paper seeks to understand the conditions leading to recent conservation policy shifts and conflicts. Through archival research and discourse analysis of falconry and pigeon racers' rhetoric, I review the development of 150 years of UK wildlife legislation and politics surrounding peregrines, situating present‐day conflict within long‐standing tensions between competing interests. In doing so, I demonstrate how contrasting ideologies of the raptors existed simultaneously between groups. Each vied for dominance and influenced policies over time, with the ideologies of ‘winners’ suppressing that of the ‘losers’ to become the norm. This historical approach highlights the key role global events like war played in overpowering the dominance of protective ideologies towards peregrines domestically, allowing peregrine culls and capture to become socially permissible. Conversely, post‐War environmental movements originating in the United States suppressed falconry's extractive relationships with peregrines in the United Kingdom, entrenching ecological priorities as a norm still conventional today. I argue that wildlife protection is contested because cultural extinction of falconry and pigeon racing were imminent, brought on by policymakers' focus on preventing the biological extinction of peregrines. However, recent policy shifts highlight the acceptance of anthropocentric interests within conservation practices. Policy implications: Animals can play multiple roles in society, but the public may not be accustomed to anthropocentric interests overtly displayed within contemporary conservation practices. Policy needs to be more sensitive towards accommodating or communicating human interests, but to also reflect on the social and ecological implications of their own ideologies towards conservation. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

A call to action for inventorying and monitoring of cliff ecosystems to support conservation

Cliffs harbor unique and specialized biodiversity that warrants attention and conservation. At the same time, cliffs are under increased threat from anthropogenic disturbance and climate change. Since cliffs are highly heterogeneous, spatially isolated, and often inaccessible compared to nearby habitats, land managers require up-to-date and site-specific information to protect them. Cliffs are often overlooked due to the technical and logistical challenges posed by surveying these environments, but field inventorying and monitoring can fill this gap. We present three case studies of cliff monitoring in action: mapping populations of an endemic rare plant in the Southern Appalachian Mountains (US), photo-sampling of cliff specialist plants in Spain, and surveying peregrine falcons in Western North Carolina (US). These case studies highlight the application of various monitoring techniques, the possibilities for collaboration among stakeholders, and some ways that data from monitoring can inform cliff conservation and stewardship. To facilitate the development of easy-to-implement monitoring, we outline three approaches and associated best practices for monitoring cliff plants. Methods range from simple photo point monitoring to more in-depth species inventories and could be implemented by community scientists alongside a broader audience interested in providing up-to-date data on cliff environments. We call for action, urging the expansion and advancement of cliff biodiversity monitoring.

Histopathologic Features and Viral Antigen Distribution of H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Clade 2.3.4.4b from the 2022-2023 Outbreak in Iowa Wild Birds.

In 2022, a new epornitic of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus clade 2.3.4.4b emerged in U.S. domestic poultry with high prevalence in wild bird populations. We describe pathological findings of HPAI H5N1 in nine wild birds encompassing eight different species, including Accipitriformes (red-tailed hawk, bald eagle), Cathartiforme (turkey vulture), Falconiforme (peregrine falcon), Strigiforme (one adult great-horned owl, one juvenile great-horned owl), Pelecaniforme (American white pelican), and Anseriformes (American green-winged teal, trumpeter swan). All these birds died naturally (found dead, or died in transit to or within a rehabilitation center), except for the bald eagle and American green-winged teal, which were euthanized. Gross lesions were subtle, characterized by meningeal congestion observed in the turkey vulture, bald eagle, and adult great-horned owl. Histologically, encephalitis was observed in all cases (9/9, 100%). Leukocytoclastic and fibrinoid vasculitis with necrotizing encephalitis was observed in the red-tailed hawk, great-horned owls, and American white pelican (5/9, 55.6%), and perivascular lymphohistiocytic encephalitis was seen in the turkey vulture, peregrine falcon, green-winged teal, and bald eagle (4/9, 44.4%). Coagulative necrosis or lymphohistiocytic/lymphoplasmacytic inflammation was identified in the kidney (6/8, 75%), liver (6/9, 66.7%), heart (5/9, 55.6%), and lung (2/9, 22.2%). Immunopositive signals against Influenza virus A nucleoprotein were predominantly detected within the brain (9/9, 100%), air sac (7/9, 77.8%), lung (7/9, 77.8%), kidney (6/8, 75%), heart (6/9, 66.7%), and liver (5/9, 55.6%). Additionally, other organs, such as the pancreas, spleen, intestines, gonads, and adrenals occasionally exhibited positive viral protein signals. In these organs, in addition to parenchymal cells, viral protein signals were often identified in endothelial cells. Our results suggest that the 2022-2023 HPAIV H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b replicated systemically in all examined birds, with brain lesions being the most prevalent and associated with a subset of birds displaying clinical signs observed perimortem.

Bill shape variation in selected species in birds of prey.

At the top of many ecosystems, raptors, also known as birds of prey, hold major influence. They shape their surroundings through their powerful hunting skills and complex interactions with their environment. This study investigates the beak morphology of four prominent raptor species, Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Common buzzard (Buteo buteo), Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and Common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), found in Türkiye. By employing geometric morphometric methods, we investigate shape variations in the beaks of these species to unravel the adaptive significance of their cranial structures. This analysis reveals distinct beak morphologies among the studied raptors, reflecting adaptations to their feeding habits, hunting techniques and ecological niches. The results from Principal component analysis and Canonical variate analysis demonstrate significant differences in beak morphology between the Falconiformes and Accipitriformes clades, as well as among all three groups. The overall mean beak shapes of Golden Eagles are quite similar to Common Buzzards, with both species having longer beaks. In contrast, Falcons exhibit a distinctly different beak morphology, characterized by wider and shorter beaks. Changes in beak shape can lead to changes depending on the skull. It is thought that skull shape variations among predator families may have an impact on beak shape. These findings highlight the importance of integrating morphometric analyses with ecological insights to enhance our understanding of the evolutionary processes shaping raptor beak morphology.

Cliff nesting birds provide nutrient inputs to cliff ecosystems

Allochthonous inputs often link nutrient cycles between different ecosystems as nitrogen (N) that originates in one ecosystem is transferred to another. Mobile animals such as birds and fish can translocate nutrients between locations. Consequently, animal-mediated nutrient subsidies can shape plant communities, especially in nutrient-poor ecosystems. Terrestrial cliffs are typically nutrient-poor, receiving N from atmospheric deposition and cliff-top runoff. Cliff nesting birds deposit N-rich excrement onto the cliff during nesting, yet this potential nutrient input has rarely been demonstrated. Here we document an allochthonous input of N from cliff-nesting birds to terrestrial cliff vegetation. We sampled mineral N and vegetation on eight cliff systems in western North Carolina (USA) with nests from peregrine falcon (F. peregrinus; two sites) and common raven (Corvus corax; five sites). Two sites had nests but species identity was not confirmed. Cliff faces below bird nests had higher levels of ammonium (NH4+) than did faces without nests. Both ammonium and nitrate (NO3−) explained variability in cliff vegetation community composition, but site-level characteristics explained more of the variation than did N inputs alone. Lichens, the dominant taxonomic group, contributed the most to this variation and had higher species richness and diversity below nests. Indicator species analysis identified two nitrophilic lichen species below nests: Flavoplaca citrina and Physcia caesia. A third nitrophilic lichen, Polycauliona candelaria (syn. Xanthoria candelaria) was also found under nests. Bird excrement is likely a significant subsidy to nutrient-poor terrestrial cliff ecosystems, thus linking cliffs to more productive ecosystems and highlighting the need to include birds in conservation and management of cliffs.

Rocks Dropped by a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) for Eyrie Defense

Rocks Dropped by a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) for Eyrie Defense

A robotic falcon induces similar collective escape responses in different bird species.

Patterns of collective escape of a bird flock from a predator are fascinating, but difficult to study under natural conditions because neither prey nor predator is under experimental control. We resolved this problem by using an artificial predator (RobotFalcon) resembling a peregrine falcon in morphology and behaviour. We imitated hunts by chasing flocks of corvids, gulls, starlings and lapwings with the RobotFalcon, and compared their patterns of collective escape to those when chased by a conventional drone and, in case of starlings, hunted by wild peregrine falcons. Active pursuit of flocks, rather than only flying nearby by either the RobotFalcon or the drone, made flocks collectively escape more often. The RobotFalcon elicited patterns of collective escape in flocks of all species more often than the drone. Attack altitude did not affect the frequency of collective escape. Starlings escaped collectively equally often when chased by the RobotFalcon or a wild peregrine falcon. Flocks of all species reacted most often by collective turns, second most often by compacting and third by splitting into subflocks. This study demonstrates the potential of an artificial aerial predator for studying the collective escape behaviour of free-living birds, opening exciting avenues in the empirical study of prey-predator interactions.

Exposure of Peregrine Falcons to Halogenated Flame Retardants: A 30 Year Retrospective Biomonitoring Study across North America.

Compared to aquatic ecosystem, terrestrial systems have been subjected to fewer investigations on the exposure to halogenated flame retardants (HFRs). Our study utilized peregrine falcon eggs collected from multiple habitats across North America to retrospectively explore both spatial distribution and temporal changes in legacy (e.g., polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and alternative HFRs over a 30 year period (1984-2016). The results reveal intensive HFR exposure in terrestrial ecosystems and chemical-specific spatiotemporal distribution patterns. The correlations between egg levels of the selected HFRs and human population density clearly illustrated a significant urban influence on the exposure of this wildlife species to these HFRs and subsequent maternal transfer to their eggs. Temporal analyses suggest that, unlike aquatic systems, terrestrial ecosystems may undergo continual exposure to consistently high levels of legacy HFRs for a long period of time. Our findings collectively highlight the effectiveness of using peregrine eggs to monitor terrestrial exposure to HFRs and other bioaccumulative chemicals and the need for continuous monitoring of HFRs in terrestrial ecosystems.

Quantitative analysis of the morphing wing mechanism of raptors: Bionic design of Falco Peregrinus wing skeleton.

The wing is one of the most important parts of a bird's locomotor system and is the inspiration origination for bionic wing design. During wing motions, the wing shape is closely related to the rotation angles of wing bones. Therefore, the research on the law of bone movement in the process of wing movement can be good guidance for the design of the bionic morphing wing. In this paper, the skeletal posture of the peregrine falcon wing during the extension/flexion is studied to obtain critical data on skeletal posture. Since an elbow joint and a wrist joint rotate correlatively to drive a wing to flex/extend, the wing skeleton is simplified as a four-bar mechanism in this paper. The degree of reproduction of wing skeleton postures was quantitatively analyzed using the four-bar mechanism model, and the bionic wing skeleton was designed. It is found that the wing motions have been reproduced with high precision.

Caught Right on the Spot: Isolation and Characterization of Clade 2.3.4.4b H5N8 High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Virus from a Common Pochard (Aythya ferina) Being Attacked by a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus).

We isolated a high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) virus from a common pochard (Aythya ferina) that was being attacked by a bird of prey in South Korea in December 2020. Genetic analyses indicated that the isolate was closely related to the clade 2.3.4.4b H5N8 HPAI viruses found in South Korea and Japan during the winter season of 2020-2021. The histopathological examination revealed multifocal necrotizing inflammation in the liver, kidney, and spleen. Viral antigens were detected in the liver, kidney, spleen, trachea, intestine, and pancreas, indicating the HPAI virus caused a systemic infection. The presence of immunoreactivity for the viral antigen was observed in the cells involved in multifocal necrotic inflammation. Notably, epitheliotropic-positive patterns were identified in the epithelial cells of the trachea, mucosal epithelium of the intestine, and ductular epithelium of the pancreas. These findings provide direct evidence supporting the possibility of HPAI transmission from infected waterfowl to predators.

Fauna and bird population of the basin of the middle reaches of the Kara River (Polar Urals, Bolshezemelskaya tundra) based on to the results of expedition studies in 2017 and 2023

The article presents the results of ornithological studies carried out in the basin of the middle reaches of the Kara River on the border of the Polar Urals and the Bolshezemelskaya tundra in the field seasons of 2017 and 2023. The routes covered a part of the valley of the middle reaches of the Kara River, sections of the valleys of the Halmershor 2nd, Lyadheyakha, Nyarmayakha, Yunyakha, Nerusaveyakha, Silovayakha, Halmer-Yu rivers and adjacent sections of the plakors. The relevance of the work is due to the fragmentary study of the territory and the need for monitoring to better identify the avifauna of a relatively inaccessible area of the Subarctic. During the research, 70 species of birds were recorded, 53 of which were breeding or likely to breed. The results of the work made it possible to carry out an inventory of the avifauna of the middle reaches of the Kara River basin, which had not previously been fully surveyed. Regular nesting in the tundra zone was confirmed down to the subzone of typical tundra, the steppe arrier Circus macrourus and the Siberian curlew Prunella montanella. The stability of the populations of the species included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation is demonstrated: the peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus and the little swan Cygnus bewickii. The revealed difference in the fauna and population of birds in the same area in different years with similar weather conditions confirms the necessity of monitoring these indicators in the Arctic and Subarctic.

Effect of a bioinspired upstream extended surface profile on flow characteristics and a drag coefficient of a circular cylinder

<abstract> <p>In the current work, the passive drag reduction of a circular cylinder for the subcritical Reynolds number range of 5.67×10<sup>4</sup> to 1.79×10<sup>5</sup> was computationally and experimentally investigated. First, inspired by nature, the aerodynamic drag coefficient of a whole Peregrine Falcon was measured in a subsonic wind tunnel for various angles of attack and Reynolds numbers (<italic>Re</italic>) and compared with the bare cylinder. At a 20° angle of attack and <italic>Re</italic> = 5.67×10<sup>4</sup>, the whole falcon model had a 75% lower drag coefficient than the bare cylinder. Later, with the moderate Falcon model, in which the falcon's beak and neck were linked to the cylinder as an extended surface, the drag coefficient decreased up to 72% in the subcritical Reynolds number zone. Finally, the extended surface with a falcon beak profile was connected to the cylinder with a stem and investigated both numerically and experimentally for various stem lengths, angles of attack, and Reynolds numbers. It was found that at low <italic>Re</italic>, the drag coefficient can be reduced by up to 47% for the stem length of 80 mm (<italic>L</italic>/<italic>D</italic> = 1.20) with an angle of attack 10°. The computational investigation yielded precise flow characteristics, and it was discovered that the stem length and the <italic>Re</italic> had a substantial influence on vortex generation and turbulent kinetic energy between the beak and cylinder, as well as downstream of the cylinder. Investigation revealed that percentile drag reduction was much lower for the whole Falcon model over a wide range of Reynolds numbers and positive angles of attack, which exist in nature. Similarly, when compared to the other stem lengths, the 60 mm stem length (<italic>L</italic>/<italic>D</italic> = 0.97) produced similar results to the whole Falcon model. The numerical results were well validated with the experimental results.</p> </abstract>

Effect of a Bionic Blade Rib on the Loss Characteristics of a Highly Loaded Compressor Cascade

To effectively reduce cascade loss and further improve compressor performance, spanning bionic blade ribs are built and positioned on the suction surface of a highly loaded compressor cascade based on the flow separation control mechanism of a peregrine falcon in high-speed flight. The effect of several kinds of bionic blade ribs on the loss of the cascade as well as the mechanism of their action are studied using numerical approaches with experimental calibration. The investigation shows that the bionic blade rib structure can lower the corner loss of the cascade to varying degrees in the range of a −9° to +6° attack angle, with the T-shaped cross-section blade rib having the best overall loss reduction impact. The open trapped vortices generated inside the blade rib suck the energy of the corner region wall boundary layer into the low-energy fluid in the corner region. Consequently, the size and intensity of the passage vortices decrease, while losses are reduced by up to 9.87%. Within the mid-range of the blade, a closed trapped vortex forms within the bionic blade-rib structure. The kinetic energy of the near-wall flow is continually consumed by closed trapped vortices along the flow passage, leading to a greater velocity differential between the suction and pressure surface flows as they converge at the trailing edge. Thus, the mixing scale increases, and the loss rises. Finally, the blade rib structure also increases the accumulation of low-energy fluid in the near-end wall region of the blade and increases the end wall loss.