Percentage Of Government Expenditure Research Articles

Political Regime Types and Income Inequality in Pakistan

Rising income inequality is one of the major issues in the Pakistani economy. It has been investigated in different dimensions. Different cross-sectional and panel studies have extensively examined the connection between political regime types and income inequality over a specific period. The findings have displayed significant variations across countries and regions. This study delves into exploring the relationship between political regime types and income inequality, specifically in Pakistan, utilizing time series data spanning from 1972 to 2019. To measure political regime types, the Polity index is employed, while the Gini-Coefficient serves as the metric for income inequality. Additionally, this research takes into account various factors, such as GDP per capita, the ratio of direct taxes to GDP, the percentage of government expenditure on education relative to GDP, and the percentage of government expenditure on community and social services relative to GDP, in order to control for their direct effects. The stationarity of the data is assessed using the augmented Dickey-Fuller test, while the autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) model is employed to examine the cointegrating relationship among the variables in the model. The empirical findings from the estimation affirm the presence of a lasting correlation between Pakistan's political regime types and wealth disparities. The findings show that different political regimes have a notable detrimental effect on the nation's economic disparity. To be more precise, a one percent increase in the Polity score is associated with a 0.45 percent long-term and a 0.25 percent short-term fall in the Gini Coefficient. This suggests that Pakistan should work toward a stable democratic political framework and put into place sustainable economic policies in order to successfully address income disparity and achieve a desirable level of income distribution

The Relationship between Types of Political Regimes and Income Inequality in Pakistan

Aim: Income inequality has emerged as a significant concern within the Pakistani economy, prompting extensive investigations across various dimensions. This study aims to explore the relationship between types of political regime and income inequality, specifically in Pakistan.
 Methods: Time series data spanning from 1972 to 2019 were utilized, obtained from the World Bank, Polity IV Project, and the Handbook of Statistics on Pakistan Economy by the State Bank of Pakistan. To measure types of political regimes, the Polity index was employed, while the Gini coefficient served as the metric for income inequality. Additionally, this research considered several factors, including GDP per capita, the ratio of direct taxes to GDP, the percentage of government expenditure on education relative to GDP, and the percentage of government expenditure on community and social services relative to GDP, to control for their direct effects. The stationarity of the data was assessed using the augmented Dickey-Fuller test, while the autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) model was employed to examine the cointegrating relationship among the variables in the model.
 Results: The empirical findings from the estimation demonstrate a lasting negative correlation between the types of political regimes in Pakistan and wealth disparities in the short and medium term. The results highlight the notable detrimental effect of different political regimes on the nation's economic disparity.
 Conclusion: A one percent increase in the Polity score is associated with a 0.45 percent long-term and a 0.25 percent short-term decrease in the Gini coefficient.
 Recommendation: Pakistan should strive towards a stable democratic political framework and implement sustainable economic policies to effectively address income disparity and achieve a desirable level of income distribution.

Diagnosis, rehabilitation and development of disability 2000-2019 in Iceland

The disability assessment standard based on medically recognized illnesses or disabilities was introduced in Iceland 1999. The aim of this study is to examine the development of Social Insurance Administration (Tryggingastofnun ríkisins, TR) rulings regarding rehabilitation and disability pensions over a twenty-year period, since its introduction. All registered diagnoses in the medical certificates of TR due to the approved rehabilitation or disability pension were examined in the period 2000-2019. The gender distribution and age distribution of these applicants and the number development during the period are described. At the same time, costs as a percentage of government expenditure are examined. The number of younger rehabilitation pensioners has increased rapidly in recent years, at the same time as the relative increase in disability pensioners has slowed slightly. Mental and musculoskeletal disorders are by far the most common types of illness leading to disability. Mental illnesses differ in terms of age distribution and increase over time. The proportion of individuals aged 18-66 with a 75% disability assessment has increased by a third during the period, from about 6% to 8%. The gender distribution of disability pensioners remains similar, with women accounting for 62% in total. Women are much more likely to receive disability pension due to musculoskeletal disorders than men and men are somewhat more likely to suffer from mental illness. The relative development of central government expenditure on total payments to rehabilitation and pensioners continues to grow as a proportion of central government expenditure. The number of rehabilitation pensioners has increased significantly since 2018, at the same time as the number of disability pensioners has decreased and there are indications that rehabilitation results in a lower number of new disability pensioners. Mental and musculoskeletal disorders are by far the most common types of illness leading to disability. A slightly lower proportion of disabled people have psychiatric diagnosis as a first diagnosis in the period 2000-2019 compared to those with a valid disability assessment in 2005, but the proportion of musculoskeletal disorders is slightly higher. Nevertheless, mental illnesses differ in age distribution and increase over time.

Public Expenditure for Education and Economic Growth in Vietnam

This research provides empirical evidence of impact of public expenditure for education on economic growth in Vietnam from 2000 to 2015. In addition, effect of human capital quality is also attacted into the research to examine its impact on economic growth. Specifically, for relating performance of government expenditure for education, we choose enrolment number of pre-primary school, enrolment number of primary school, enrolment number of lower secondary school, enrolment of upper secondary school, percentage of high school graduation as education’s performance. Moreover, we aslo estimate the impact of percentage of government expenditure of GDP for health on GDP growth. Firstly, we estimate the relationship of government capital and regular expenditure for education, its performance mentioned above and human capital quality (HDI as proxy). Secondly, we test the impact of all explanatories of model 1 including HDI plus percentage of government expenditure of GDP for health on GDP growth. Consequently, the first model shows that enrolment number of pre-primary school and regular government spending for education have positive relationship with HDI, whereas, capital spending for education shows negative relationship. For the second model, enrolment number of lower secondary school, enrolment number of primary school, capital expenditure of public budget for education, and HDI are related positively to GDP growth. On the other hand, enrolment number of pre-primary school, percentage of high school graduation, and regular spending for education move negatively way with GDP growth. Keywords : HDI, government expenditure, GDP growth, enrolment DOI: 10.7176/JESD/11-6-06 Publication date: March 31 st 2020

Foreign aid and government expansion: Evidence from low and middle income countries

Foreign aid is an important source of revenue for most developing countries of the world, this is because it helps in public sector planning and implementation of projects. Another major argument in favor of foreign aid is that helps to bridge the gap created by the savings and investment relation. Similarly, it enhance the pace and nature of economic growth. It is further argued that foreign aid serves as take-off plans towards sustainable growth by developing countries, hitherto constrained by resource. However, as good as foreign aid is, it can also lead to the aid fungibility and this remains a gap to be filled in the literature for developing and emerging economies. The study used panel data technique for a sample of 65 low and middle income countries. Annual data sourced from the World Development Indicators were used and the variables are the ratio of government expenditure to the GDP, aid as a percentage of GNI, aid as a percentage of government expenditure, aid as a percentage of imports, the log of population, dependency ratio measured as a percentage of the population that is 65 years and above, trade openness as a percentage of GDP, per capita GDP measured in constant U.S. dollars, government revenue expressed as a percentage of the GDP, and the ratio of debt service to exports. The research covers the period of forty two years, from 1970 to 2012 which spans major economic cycles for in the lives of the countries, since attaining political independence in the 1960s. Using a fixed effect panel estimation technique that accounts for heteroskedasticity, results show aid as a percentage of Gross National Income (GNI), aid as a percentage of government expenditure, and aid as a percentage of imports have a statistically significant relationship with government spending. In addition, changes in trade openness as a percentage of GDP and changes in population are all positive and statistically significant, while per capita GNP, dependency ratio and debt service to imports all have no significant relationship Policy implications: Government should try to make judiciously use foreign aid and have institutions that will avoid aid fungibility. Government should try to diversify her economy towards import substitution and export promotion strategies.

Women's Education in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia : A Positive Perspective

When Saudi Arabia formally became a nation in 1932, education was largely limited to instruction for a select few in Islamic schools. Today, public education—from primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. The education system in Saudi Arabia is primarily under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education and the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training. Other authorities such as the Ministry of Defence and Aviation, the Presidency of the National Guard, and the Ministry of the Interior provide their affiliates and children with education at all levels, consistent with Ministry of Education guidelines. The highest authority that supervises education in Saudi Arabia is the Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963. [1] According to the World Bank database, public spending on education is 6.8 percent of GDP, and public spending on education as a percentage of government expenditure was 27.6 percent in 2004. Education spending as a percentage of overall spending tripled from 1970 to 2000, and neither economic growth nor the price of oil had much impact on this trend. [2]

Educational and Economic Reforms, Gender Equity, and Access to Schooling in Africa

This paper investigates the relationship between economic reforms, particularly the World Bank’s Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS) and educational policies with regard to gender equity in access to schooling in Africa. Using qualitative, historical, and quantitative methods and based on data from UNESCO and African Development Bank, it analyzes the impact of economic factors, specifically gross domestic investment, public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product, public expenditure on education as a percentage of government expenditure, and government deficit/surplus as a percentage of GDP at current prices, on women’s access to higher education. 1. Introduction: Issues and Objectives THIS PAPER IS divided into five major sections including the introduction that presents the issues and objectives. The second part deals with specifications regarding the concepts and methodology. The third section recalls the unequal original distribution of education and the quest for gender equality as articulated in some of the educational reform documents and experiences. The fourth section analyzes the economic crisis, reforms, and especially the structural adjustment programs (SAPs) and the impact of their conditionalities on social services, with focus on the education sector as a whole. The fifth section examines more specifically the structural relation between the economic crisis, the SAPs, and women’s access to higher education. The conclusion addresses some of the issues for future educational development and research direction in the next century. Following the political independence of African countries that started in the 1950s, the next two decades were characterized by high optimism in the possi