Percentage Of Free Fatty Acids Research Articles

Comparative effect of olive oil and flaxseed oil on drug induced hepatotoxicity in rats

AbstractThis study investigates the hepatoprotective effects of olive oil and flaxseed oil on chemically induced hepatotoxicity in rats by evaluating key biochemical parameters, including free fatty acids, iodine value, liver enzymes (ALP, ALT, AST), cholesterol, triglycerides, and HDL levels. The results demonstrated significant improvements in these markers with the administration of olive oil and flaxseed oil, either individually or in combination. The free fatty acid percentages and iodine values were consistent with the known nutritional properties of the oils. Notably, the combination of olive oil and flaxseed oil yielded the most substantial benefits, reducing ALP (115.53 ± 0.44 U/L), ALT (50.77 ± 1.46 U/L), and AST (52.12 ± 0.36 U/L) levels while improving lipid profiles by lowering cholesterol (135.4 ± 1.43 mg/dL) and triglyceride levels (57.14 ± 2.35 mg/dL) and increasing HDL levels (49.20 ± 0.45 mg/dL). These findings suggest that olive oil and flaxseed oil, due to their antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory properties, can effectively mitigate liver damage and promote lipid metabolism. The study supports the potential therapeutic application of these oils in managing liver health and preventing hepatotoxicity.

PSLBI-7 Coating extruded kibble with increasing levels of free fatty acids does not decrease palatability or impact e-nose odor profiles

Abstract Complete uncoated extruded kibble was coated with 5% by weight premium poultry fat (5,000 ppm Naturox, 0.57% FFA; Tyson, Springdale, AR) spiked with 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20 percent free fatty acids (Oleic acid, Millipore Sigma. Burlington, MA), and 3% liquid chicken-based palatant (Tyson, Springdale, AR). Kibbles were then utilized in oral palatability (n = 20 dogs; 10 male, 10 female), aromatic palatability (n = 20 dogs; 10 male, 10 female), and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTG; n = 36 dogs; 18 male, 18 female). Kibble odors were by ultra-fast gas chromatography e-nose (AlphaMOS, Toulouse, France), and SPME GC-MS (MUMC, Columbia, MO). In the aromatic palatability trials, there were no significant differences in first approach (P ≥ 0.21), percent interaction time (P ≥ 0.16), or interaction ratio (P ≥ 0.94). In the oral palatability trials, there were no significant differences in first approach (P ≥ 0.26), first bite (P ≥ 0.50), percent consumed (P ≥ 0.15), or intake ratio (P ≥ 0.59). There was a significant increase in fat digestibility among diets coated with 20% FFA compared with the uncoated diet (P = 0.02), with intermediate diets showing a slight numerical increase but no significant difference. However, there was no significant difference in protein, carbohydrate, or dry matter digestibility (P ≥ 0.06). Principle component analysis of e-nose peaks showed minimal odor changes between samples (DI = -3). SPME GC-MS analysis identified 16 compounds correlated with FFA percentage (r2 ≥ 0.50). When used to coat kibble, poultry fat with up to 20% FFA did not appear to negatively impact palatability or overall odor profile, though it did modify specific volatile compounds.

Utilization of opium poppy seed oil for biodiesel production: A parametric characterization and statistical optimization

Consuming traditional petroleum-derived diesel fuel has long been associated with issues such as the depletion of natural energy resources. To solve these challenges, an alternate source like as biodiesel is an appealing option. Seed oils have long been recognized as an abundant and diverse source of biodiesel. In this study, poppy seed oil from the poppy (Papaver somniferum) was investigated for biodiesel production. Poppy seed biodiesel was generated and refined using acid-pretreated esterification with sulphuric acid prior to transesterification, as well as single-step alkaline catalyzed transesterification with methanol and potassium hydroxide. Finally, the percentage yield was compared. Using Statistica, the Box-Behnken design was applied to optimize process variables like time, temperature, catalyst concentration, and methanol-oil ratio to produce maximum yield. The relationship of process variables was also shown with the help of the Response Surface Methodology. A maximum yield of 94.87 % was obtained at optimized conditions, i.e., 90min reaction time, 60 °C of temperature, 0.25 mg of catalyst concentration, and 3v/v% alcohol-oil ratio. The fuel properties of biodiesel produced, such as acid value, moisture content, saponification value, iodine value, specific gravity, percentage of free fatty acids, refractive index, viscosity, boiling point, and peroxide value, were measured and compared with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D6751 and European Standards (EN) 14214. Further results were studied and discussed using Fourier Transfer Infrared (FTIR) analysis, which showed maximum similarity of raw material to formed biodiesel. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was performed to identify and quantify various fatty acid methyl esters. The results obtained were in accordance with various international standards for biodiesel fuel. Thus, poppy seeds can be used to obtain biodiesel.

Development of Free Fatty Acid (FFA) monitoring device for evaluation of oil samples used for biodiesel production

Diversion of oil sources for biodiesel production has been gaining importance to meet the environmental concerns and energy demand. The free fatty acid (FFA) content of the feedstock is a significant factor in biodiesel production. The FFA values determine the complexity of the biodiesel production. Until date, an experimental procedure has been used to determine the FFA concentration of an oil source; this method is dependent on titration, which is a laborious process involving significant volumes of chemicals. Hence, in the present study, an attempt was made to develop a device for the identification of FFA of the oils. Waste cooking oil samples subjected to wide range of cooking conditions like cooking time, temperature, type of food are collected from different food outlets. Subsequently, the composition of oil samples and the variation in their quality were analysed using gas chromatography flame ionization detector (GC – FID). Biodiesel is prepared from the oil samples through transesterification and the impact of FFA and their respective methyl esters in the quality and properties have been investigated. The properties of biodiesel were determined as per ASTM standards. The study was further extended to correlate the properties of biodiesel with the composition of the oil from which it was derived. The analysis evidently proved the dependence of biodiesel properties on the FFA percentage and the composition of the oil. The results have been further substantiated with the performance and emission characteristics of internal combustion engine fuelled with the prepared biodiesel samples.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction of bioactive compounds from Moringa oleifera leaves for beef patties preservation: Antioxidant and inhibitory activities, half-life, and sensory attributes.

This study aims to examine employing ultrasound-assisted extraction of bioactive components from Moringa oleifera leaves and apply them in beef patties preservation, as well as antioxidant and inhibitory activities and sensory qualities. The study included studying the chemical content and minerals of the M. oleifera leaves, preparation of aqueous and alcoholic extracts using an ultrasound device, then exploring the extraction yield. The results proved that the extraction yield by ultrasound using ethanol at 80% was the highest, reaching 19.22%. The total phenols in the ultrasonic extract with moringa leaves aqueous extract (AMEUS) amounted to 120,755 mg/mL. Since the AMEUS exhibited the highest value of 68.308 mg/mL calic acid - eight phenolic compounds discovered by HPLC - the total content of flavonoids was also calculated. The inhibitory and antioxidant effects of moringa leaf extracts are well documented. We monitored the changes in chemical indicators, such as the value of peroxide and thiobarbituric acid, as well as the percentage of free fatty acids and physical characteristics, such as water-carrying capacity, pH, and pigments, for storage periods 0, 4, 8, and 12 days after adding AMEUS to beef patties at a concentration of 0.5%. The patties were kept under refrigeration at 4 ± 1°C during this time. The values of peroxide number, thiobarbituric acid, free fatty acid, and metmyoglobin pigment were decreased in the beef patties treated with the AMEUS. However, they increased continuously during the cryopreservation period, and there was a significant increase in water-holding capacity (WHC) when the beef patties were treated with AMEUS. The results also showed that adding AMEUS to beef patties improved their qualitative characteristics.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Contamination and Quality of Locally Produced Crude Palm Oil in South-South Zone, Nigeria

Background: Oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq is a perennial crop mainly cultivated for its vegetable oil. The fatty acid composition of crude palm oil (CPO) is mostly composed of palmitic, stearic oleic, and linoleic acids. Objectives: This study evaluated the quality of locally produced CPO from six states of South-South zone, Nigeria. Methods: The parameters of CPOs were characterized by specific gravity (SG), acid value (AV), percentage of free fatty acid (%FFA), and saponification value (SV) and peroxide value (PV). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in CPO were quantified using standard procedures, the related risk due to daily consumption of 25 g was characterized by lifetime cancer risk (LCR) and margin of exposure (MOE). Results: The study observed that the mean values of the parameters were 0.931 SG; 5.01 mgKOH g-1 AV; 2.28% FFA; 177.27 mgKOH g-1 SV and 29.65 meqO2 kg-1 PV. Apart from %FFA, the others did not meet the requirements recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the joint WHO/FAO. Diagnostic ratios of PAHs suggested a mixture of petrogenic and pyrogenic origins. The MOEs showed low health concern while 16PAH-LCR values which ranged from 2.48E-04 - 4.48E-04 were unacceptable. The screening value 0.003 was significantly (p> 0.05) lower than the computed total BaP equivalent (BaPeq) values indicating potential human health concerns. It is recommended that CPO processing and storage methods should be properly monitored to prevent quality reduction and contamination, which might have adverse effect on consumers.

Effect of Molecular Substitution of Oats and Chia Powder for Animal Fats on Chemical Indicators and Physical Properties in the Manufacture of Freeze-Preserved Beef Burgers

The study aimed to find out the effect of molecular substitution of some vegetable sources, namely oatmeal and chia, instead of animal fat, on the manufacture and preservation of low-fat burger patties stored by freezing at a temperature of (-18 ± 2 C) during the storage period for a period of (60) days and follow-up of their characteristics during the storage period by (1, 30, 60) days during which the chemical characteristics were monitored, which included (pH, peroxide number, and percentage of free fatty acids), as well as follow-up on the qualitative characteristics, and compared the factory burger with the commercial one Available in the markets. The burger was made from 80% lean veal and 20% beef fat, which is the standard treatment. The fat was replaced with 50% oatmeal and 50% chia powder for the manufacture of the beef burger. It was also observed a significant decrease in the peroxide values and the percentage of free fatty acids for the replacement treatments compared to the control treatment and the commercial Berger treatment. The results indicated that the percentage of water retention ability, cooking yield, and the percentage of weight loss during cooking increased in the replacement treatments compared to the control treatment. The results also showed a clear and remarkable improvement for all the technological characteristics under study. Therefore, the study recommends the use of oatmeal and chia powder as a substitute for animal fats in the manufacture of burgers.

The Effect of Variation of Palm Fronds Absorbent Concentration In Adsorption Process to Reduce Free Fatty Acid Content on Tengkawang Oil

Tengkawang oil that hasn’t through purification process contains free fatty acid that can affect its quality, where this essence is the polluter that must be removed because it can caused a rancid. The removal of free fatty acid content on Tengkawang oil was done through adsorption process utilizing palm fronds adsorbent by using its cellulose content. Palm fronds went through dilegnification process using 10% of NaOH, then adsorption process was conducted with adsorbent concentration variety 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%. Adsorbent characterized by utilizing FTIR and SAA, from FTIR result shows that palm fronds contain berlignocellulose function cluster, after delignification the C=C lignin compound function cluster still can be found on FTIR result and after adsorption O-H cluster went through intensity decrement which shows that cellulose content and hydroxyl (-OH) cluster reacted with adsorbat. Furthermore, there’s absorption on C-H function cluster that indicates the existence of free fatty acid compound and other polluter that adsorbed by palm fronds adsorbent. The characteristic of palm fronds adsorbent after delignification process was conducted shows the pore size is on micropore range with surface area of 6.480 m2/g, pore volume of 0.01138 cc/g and pore radius of 12.4 Å. The result of the research shows decreasing percentage of free fatty acid, capacity value and adsorption effectiveness of Tengkawang oil that the highest is on adsorbent concentration as much as 25% with decreasing percentage of free fatty acid as much as 4.68%, adsorption capacity as much as 207.19 mg/g and adsorption effectiveness as much as 36.28%. Keywords: adsorption; delignification; free fatty acid; tengkawang oil

Ekstraksi Komponen Lipid dari Mikroalga Nannochloropsis oculata dan Nitzschia sp. dengan Metode Sokletasi dan Bligh Dyer

Dependence on fossil energy sources as non-renewable energy will trigger the threat of an energy crisis in Indonesia in the future. The solution to this issue is through the development of renewable energy and one of them is through the exploration and utilization of biomass such as microalgae. Microalgae have a high lipid content (4-77%) and have potential as raw materials for producing biofuel (biodiesel, bioethanol, and biogas). Lipids can be converted into biodiesel through acid or base-catalyzed esterification and transesterification reactions. The aim of this research was to determine the percentage of lipid components, namely free fatty acids (FFA), monoglycerides (MAG), diglycerides (DAG), and triglycerides (TAG) from microalgae extracts of Nannochloropsis oculata and Nitzschia sp. using Soxhletation and Bligh Dyer extraction methods. This research also aims to determine the comparison of lipid yields from the two extraction methods. Lipid yield percentage was determined through gas chromatography analysis. The research results showed that the percentages of FFA, MAG, DAG, and TAG for N. oculata ranged from 3.34 - 33.79% (soxhletation) and 0 - 17.54% (bligh dyer). Meanwhile, for Nitzschia sp., the percentage ranged from 7.16 - 26.28% (soxhletation) and 0.45 - 13.73% (bligh dyer). Lipid yield for N. oculata was 1.81% (soxhletation) and 2.21% (bligh dyer), while for Nitzschia sp., 0.96% (soxhletation) and 2.10% (bligh dyer). Based on the results of both extraction methods, it was found that the total lipid percentage of the microalgae N. oculata was higher than Nitzschia sp.
 
 

Nutritional evaluation of fish scale of selected saline and fresh water fish species

Fish scale is the major waste materials of fish having different vital nutrients, proteins, and fatty acids. But unfortunately, it has not been drawn much attention due to want of available researches and information. So, the present research has been emphasized on the exploration of proximate compositions and fatty acid profile in two fresh water fish L. rohita and C. idella as well as saline water fish L. calcarifer and T. ilisha. All the experiments were carried out according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The individual percentage of fatty acid was identified and quantified, using Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) and the prominent percentage of docosanoic acid was found as 25.96 ± 0.05%, 51.74 ± 0.04%, 56.58 ± 0.01%, and 32.88 ± 0.04% in L. rohita, C. idella, L. calcarifer, and T. ilisha, respectively. Besides, among the mono and poly unsaturated fatty acids, palmitoleic acid and linolenic acid were traced in higher amount respectively, in all fish species. The quality of fish scale oil was evaluated using saponification value, iodine value, ester value, acid value, percentage of free fatty acid, and percentage of glycerin that was found as 183.78 ± 0.34 mg KOH/g, 29.93 ± 0.21 mg I2/g, 175.31 ± 0.31 mg KOH/g, and 17.53 ± 0.24 mg KOH/g, in L. rohita, T. ilisha, L. rohita, and L. rohita, respectively. The proximate analyses showed that the maximum percentage of moisture (53.20 ± 0.23%) and lipid (1.42 ± 0.11%) was noticed in L. rohita whistle, the maximum percentage of ash (18.70 ± 0.27%) and protein (32.37 ± 0.26%) was found in T. ilisha. Furthermore, among the different minerals, calcium was found as higher amount than others minerals in all four species.

Purification of Triglyceride from Used Cooking Oil for Biodiesel Feedstock Using Batchwise Solvent Extraction

Green economy and blue economy are essential to applicate. One of the mandatory programs from the Indonesian government is B30, a specification of diesel fuel that has 30 percent of biodiesel content. Based on the biodiesel feedstock specification standard, the free fatty acid content is below 1%. The aim of this research was to produce biodiesel feedstock with high purity of triglyceride from used cooking oil by using batchwise solvent extraction. Batchwise solvent extraction involves the polarity of oil and solvent to separate polar and non-polar lipid fractions. The target of this research was the lowest percentage of free fatty acid and the highest percentage of triglyceride. This method also skipped the general method of refined oil products, such as degumming, neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization. The used cooking oil was mixed with a binary solvent (n-hexane and technical grade ethanol) and a single solvent (food grade ethanol 96% only). Each mixture was stirred at 300 rpm for 15 min and then poured into a separator funnel for 15 min. Polar and non-polar lipid fractions were separated. The non-polar lipid fraction was processed in the same procedure until eight stages. It was found that the batchwise binary solvent extraction produced a non-polar lipid fraction with triglyceride and free fatty acid purities of 88.81% and 2.06%, respectively. Moreover, the batchwise single solvent extraction produced a non-polar lipid fraction with triglyceride and free fatty acid purities of 95.89% and 0.93%, respectively, which is suitable with the standard of biodiesel feedstock below 1%.

Sensory and Oxidative Stability of Roasted Peanuts Coated with Arabic Gum and A Synthetic Antioxidant During Storage

The impact of coating formulations containing Arabic gum (AG) and Arabic gum with 100 ppm BHT on the oxidative stability and sensory attributes of roasted peanuts during a 120-day storage period at room temperature (RT) was investigated and compared to roasted, uncoated peanuts (control). The oxidative stability of raw peanuts (P), roasted peanuts (RP), roasted and coated peanuts with Arabic gum (RCP-AG), and roasted and coated peanuts with Arabic gum and 100 ppm BHT (RCP-AG-BHT) was determined based on parameters such as free fatty acids percentage (FFA%), peroxide value (PV), p-Anisidine value (pAV), Totox value (TV), and sensory properties at intervals of 0, 30, 60, and 120 days.The estimated coating percentage (CP %) for all treatments is about 2.5% and the yield of oil from hydraulic pressed peanuts kernels and treatments were ranged from 35.6 to 47.1%. Nine fatty acids were identified from raw and roasted peanuts oil and characterized by large percentage of unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs) (82.1 %) with large proportion of oleic acid (49.45%) and linoleic acid (31.92%), while saturated fatty acids were 17.9%, with large proportion of palmitic acid (11.36%) followed by stearic acid (3.48%) in RP. The FFA (%) of extracted raw peanuts oil was 0.68%, this percentage was increased after roasting significantly (p< 0.05) in all treatments and control, but it didn't increase during storage period. An increase in PV values of roasted and treated samples were noticed throughout the storage time. After 4 months of storage, the maximum value of PV was (75.1 meq/kg) recorded by the roasted sample (RP), whereas the minimum value was (43.9 meq/kg) recorded by (RCP-AG- BHT). pAV increased significantly after roasting and during storage time in all peanuts samples. However, RP-AG-BHT showed no significant differences in pAV after one month of storage. An increase in TV values of roasted and treated samples were noticed throughout the storage time, while the TV for RP-AG and RP-AG-BHT where less when compared with the control (RP). There were no significant differences (P < 0.05) in the color, hardness and crunchiness between control and treatments after 2 months of storage. However, Glossiness, rancidity and off-flavor were significantly affected.

The Effect of Adding Lemongrass Leaf Powder (Cymbopogon Citratus) to the Diet as a Natural Supplement on Some Productive Traits and Oxidation Indicators in Broiler (Ross 308)

The experiment aimed to demonstrate the effect of feeding vitamin E and lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) to broiler chickens on production performance and physiology. 144 chicks were obtained and randomly assigned to four treatments, each with three replications and 12 birds in each replication. First and foremost, there is no addition to the control group. The second treatment T2 included 300 mg of vitamin E per kilogram of feed; the third treatment T3 included 5 g of lemongrass powder per kilogram of feed; and the fourth treatment T4 included 10 g of lemongrass powder per kilogram of feed. The following characteristics were investigated in the experiment: broiler weight gain rate; dressing percentage without edible giblets; dressing percentage with edible giblets; relative weights of edible giblets; estimation of fat oxidation in tissues by measuring the amount of Malondialdehyde in the liver; percentage of free fatty acids (FFA); and peroxide values (P.V) found in liver tissue. When compared to the control treatment, the fourth and third treatments were significantly superior (P≤0.05) in the rate of weight gain, while the second, third, and fourth treatments excelled in dressing percentage with edible giblets and without edible giblets, and there was no significant difference in the relative weights of edible giblets.

Effect of Adding Lion’s Mane Mushroom Hericium erinaceus and Reishi Mushrooms Ganoderma lucidum to Broiler Diets on some Physiological, Immunological Characteristics and Oxidation Indicators of Meat

Research on the effect of supplementing broiler diets with Hericium erinaceus and Ganoderma lucidum was conducted from March 22, 2022, to April 18, 2022, in the poultry field at the Department of Animal Production, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Baghdad, Abu Ghraib. Productivity that really packs a punch. The experiment used 210 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks with an average starting weight of 42.38 g (10 birds/replicated). After receiving starter diet for the first 10 days, the chicks switched to growth diet for the next 11-24 days. The birds were randomly assigned to one of seven treatments for the last 25-42 days, with three replicates per treatment and 10 birds in each replication. These were the experimental procedures: (T1) A diet devoid of any modifications or supplements. (T2), the basic ration supplemented with 1g/kg of feed from the lion’s mane mushroom; (T3), the basic ration supplemented with 1.5g/kg of feed from the lion’s mane mushroom; ((T4), the basic ration supplemented with 2 g/kg of the lion’s mane mushroom; (T5), the basic diet supplemented with 1 g/kg of the fungus; (T6), the basic diet Results showed a high significant increase (p0.01) for T1 treatment birds, a highly significant decrease (p≤0.01) for T6 birds, and a highly significant decrease (p0.01) for LDL in the blood of birds receiving any additional treatments. The percentage of free fatty acids (FFA) in the frozen meat of treatment T4, followed by T3, and the percentage decreased in all addition treatments compared to the control treatment T1, and the results of oxidative stress showed a highly significant decrease (p>0.01) in the concentration of MDA and P.V of broiler meat frozen 60 days for the treatments T3, T4, and T7.

Synthesis of Cu-1,4-Benzene Dicarboxylate Metal-Organic Frameworks (Cu-BDC MOFs) from Plastic Waste and Its Application as Catalyst in Biodiesel Production

The increasing of PET plastic waste causes various environmental problems because decomposing it is difficult to compose. This study aims to utilize PET plastic waste as a source of terephthalic acid organic linker in the solvothermal synthesis of Cu-1,4-Benzene Dicarboxylate metal-organic frameworks (Cu-BDC MOFs). Cu-BDC MOFs were characterized using FTIR, XRD, and SEM-EDX. The characterization results showed that the crystals of Cu-BDC MOFs had an irregular cubic morphology with an average crystal size of 67.96 nm. Furthermore, Cu-BDC MOFs were applied as catalysts for the esterification reaction to produce biodiesel from coconut oil. The conversion percentage of free fatty acids in the esterification process was 43.75 %, while in the transesterification process, it was 68.90 %. Analysis using GC-MS showed the presence of 8 peaks, with the largest percentage of areas identified as fatty acid methyl esters. The major components were methyl laurate (31.17 %), methyl myristate (18.77 %), methyl palmitate (12.50 %), methyl caprylate (10.76 %), methyl elaidate (10.07 %), methyl caprate (7.34 %), methyl stearate (5.67 %), and methyl linoleate (2.26 %). The quality of the biodiesel was tested, and the results were as follows: The density parameter was measured at 842.5 kg/m3, the viscosity measurement showed 2.9572 cSt, and the water content was found to be 0.09 %. Additionally, the acid number parameter was determined to be 0.2799 mg-KOH/g. HIGHLIGHTS Cu-BDC MOFs are produced through the hydrolysis of PET waste using a solvothermal mixture of distilled water, ethanol, and DMF at 85 °C for 24 h. The micrograph of the synthesized Cu-BDC MOFs reveals a clustered topography of Cu-BDC MOFs crystals with irregular cubic (hexahedral) shapes. FTIR analysis of biodiesel displays distinctive peaks corresponding to the -C-H, -C=O, -CH2, -CH3, and -C-O functional groups. The GC-MS analysis of biodiesel from coconut oil shows the presence of 8 major peaks, namely methyl caprylate, methyl caprate, methyl laurate, methyl myristate, methyl palmitate, methyl linoleate, methyl elaidate, and methyl stearate, with the largest percent area. The quality test results of biodiesel indicate a density parameter of 842.5 kg/m3, a biodiesel viscosity measurement of 2.9572 cSt, a water content of 0.0898 %, and an acid number of 0.2799 mg-KOH/g. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Recent trends on sewage sludge transesterification: review

The need for non-existent or low-cost sources to be a feedstock for the biodiesel industry as a source of lipids has led to the trend of sewage sludge (containing high fat content) and thinking about it and finding ways to benefit from it. On the other hand, he use of sludge is an environmental treatment, as it rids the environment of tons of sludge produced daily and a solution to a problem for treatment plants that were looking for ways and solutions to get rid of it and save the cost of getting rid of it and converting it into clean and promising energy. It was found that the sewage sludge in all its primary and secondary types is a feedstock rich in free fatty acids (FFA), which is the raw material for the production of biodiesel, while treating it with one of the types of catalyst alcohols. According to a review of previous studies, it was found that acidic catalysts are most suitable for biodiesel production from sewage sludge, because sewage sludge has a free fatty acid content of 65-70%, which is a high percentage. It is a severely high percentage of free fatty acids found in pure vegetable oils that do not exceed 5%. The heterogeneous acid catalysts were preferred over the homogeneous ones because of the satisfactory results they provided and the high productivity of biodiesel compared to the homogeneous ones, and they are more economical as they can be reused more than once, but also many times. Reacting sewage sludge lipids with a type of catalyst alcohol and forming biodiesel called transesterification or esterification, and it may be traditional or in-site, and in-site is more important and economical than conventional. It was found from previous references that heterogeneous catalysts in general and zeolite types in particular are the most suitable for oil extracted from sewage sludge. Where The yield reached 100% using a type of zeolite.

Hydraulic Cold-Pressed Extraction of Sacha Inchi Seeds: Oil Yield and Its Physicochemical Properties

Sacha inchi oil (SIO) extraction has been extensively studied using various oil extraction techniques to achieve a high oil recovery. However, most studies relied on heat-based methods, which led to compromised oil quality and reduced nutritional values, particularly polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6), vitamin E, and phenolic compounds. To address these concerns, this study employed a hydraulic cold-pressed extraction (HCPE) technique for extracting SIO aiming to enhance oil yield while preserving its nutritional integrity. During the HCPE process of sacha inchi seeds (SIS), conducted at a constant temperature of 25 ± 1 °C, pressures and pressing times were varied within the range of 30–50 MPa and 10–30 min, respectively, to determine their impact on SIO yields. The results revealed that both pressure and pressing time significantly influenced the yields of SIO (p < 0.05), with the highest oil recovery of 86.31 wt.% on a wet basis achieved at 50 MPa for 30 min. Regarding physicochemical properties, the peroxide values (5.71–9.07 meq/kg), iodine values (176.22–197.76 g I2/100 g), acid values (1.82–2.16 mg KOH/g), and percentage of free fatty acids (0.91–1.08 wt.% as oleic acid) were found to be influenced by pressure and pressing time (p < 0.05). Additionally, the color variation by L* (34.22–35.17), −a* (0.39–0.81), and b* (3.48–5.62) changed with each oil yield. Notably, the high iodine value in SIO indicated a substantial content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, including omega-3 (40.86%), omega-6 (40.87%), and omega-9 (10.20%). Furthermore, a comparison with solvent extraction methods demonstrated that HCPE exhibited similar efficiency in extracting SIO, offering additional advantage in terms of its cold-pressed condition, eliminating of solvent use, simplicity, short extraction time, and higher oil recovery.

ANALYSIS OF PROCESSING PALM OIL FRUIT INTO CRUDE PALM OIL AT PT. SEDJAHTERA INDO AGRO BUKIT AJONG FACTORY, SANGGAU DISTRICT

An analysis of the production process needs to be done at PT. Sedjahtera Indo Agro PKS Bukit Ajong Factory. The method was determining the average, median, standard deviation, and variance free fatty acid content of production. Free fatty acid levels was titrated by 0.1N NaOH and Phenolphthalein as an indicator. The results of the analysis of 461 samples found that the average percent free fatty acid content was 3.76% with a median of 3.95. The variance value is 0.05 with a standard deviation of 0.17. The factors causing unstable levels of free fatty acids is due to non-continuous factory operations and frequent stoppages of operations. If that happens for a long time, the free fatty acid levels will increase as a result of the increase in temperature in the tank. However, the CPO produced still meets the SNI where the average FFA content per week is 2-5%.

Physicochemical Properties and Biological Activities of Koseret (Lippia adoensis Hochst. Var. Koseret) Seed and Leaf Oil Extracts.

Lippia adoensis Hoechst var. adoensis (wild variety) and variety koseret (cultivated variety) have been used as traditional medicine, condiments, and endemic to Ethiopia. This study aimed to assess the physicochemical properties and biological activities of oil extracts from seed and leaves of koseret (L. adoensis var. koseret). Soxhlet apparatus was used for oil extraction using hexane as a solvent. The oil quality assessment was based on oil yield, acid value, percent free fatty acid, and peroxide value, while the biological activities were investigated based on antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. The antimicrobial experiment was arranged as 2 x1x4 in a completely randomized factorial design with three replications. The result indicated that significantly higher oil yield (2.25%), acid value (2.66%) and free fatty acid (1.34%) were recorded for seed oil using the solvent extraction method. Leaf oil was recorded to have significantly higher values of DPPH (2,2- diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl), ascorbic acid and total carotenoid contents, but a lower value of hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity indicated that leaf oil presented higher antioxidant activity than seed oil in koseret. The koseret leaf oil demonstrated stronger antibacterial activity with a maximum zone of inhibition (14.50±0.21 mm), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC, 0.25 μg/ml) and corresponding minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC, 0.25 μg/ml) against S. aureus. Furthermore, leaf oil has also presented stronger antifungal activity with a maximum zone of inhibition (14.83 mm), MIC (0.25 μg/ml), and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC, 0.50 μg/ml) against Aspergillus versicolor. It can be concluded from the results of this study that leaf oil extract has demonstrated better biological activities, including both antioxidant and antimicrobial potentials, than seed oil in koseret.

Ability of Moringa Ore (Moringa Oleifera) As Biosorbent in Used Cooking Oil Processing

The results of this study stated that the use of activated moringa ore biosorbents had a great influence on the quality of cooking oil both physically and chemically. The results of data analysis based on variations in contact time and dose variations can show that free fatty acid levels have decreased but are not in accordance with the stipulated SNI, namely 0.17%. Activation of Moringa ore using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) can reduce the levels of free fatty acids in used cooking oil. Variation of biosorbent contact time can affect the decrease in fatty acid levels, which occurs at the optimum contact time of 90 minutes, the free fatty acid percentage of 0.17% is not in accordance with SNI. Variations in biosorbent doses can also affect the increase in free fatty acid levels, namely the optimum dose of 1.00-gram percentage of free fatty acids decreased by 0.17% not according to SNI. Variations in contact time and variations in optimum doses of biosorbents can also affect color organoleptic tests and the smell of used cooking oil. Where the results of each respondent's statement that 95% of the refined oil using Moringa ore biosorbent are similar to new cooking oil, namely with a bright yellow color. The method used in this study is a quantitative method by conducting experiments on the subjects to be studied and used as a reference for finding and obtaining data directly through observation or experimentation