Percentage Increase In Price Research Articles

Elasticity of Supply and Demand for Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Cianjur District

This study aims to analyze the elasticity of supply and demand and analyze the factors that influence the elasticity of supply and demand for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Cianjur Regency. This research was conducted from July 2020 to January 2022. The method used is descriptive quantitative method using primary data and secondary data. The sampling technique used in this research is accidental sampling. The results showed that the elasticity of supply and demand for tilapia (O. niloticus) in Cianjur Regency was elastic, meaning that if there was a change in price it would increase the change in supply/demand exceeding the percentage increase in price and indicate that the factors that affect the elasticity of supply for tilapia (O. niloticus) are the number of consumers and the factors that affect the elasticity of demand for tilapia (O. niloticus) are the price of tilapia and per capita income.

ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFICIENCY OF MILK PRODUCTION IN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES

In the dairy subcomplex of Ukraine, the success of market relations largely depends on the pricing of its products. It is proved that today the price is one of the main factors that shape the competitive advantages of milk and determine its share in the dairy market. In the context of global challenges, agricultural enterprises have limited influence on the selling price, so the real direction of increasing the profitability of production is to reduce its cost. However, studies show that the formation of milk prices can be influenced by the producer through the quality of products. Thus, due to the growth of fat and protein content above the basic norms, milk acquires a higher or extra grade, which allows the producer to receive surcharges and, as a result, a higher selling price. Profitability is the main indicator of production efficiency and depends on many factors, so the author studied the impact of the main ones, namely price, cost and quality parameters of products. It is proved that increasing the level of profitability can be achieved by reducing the cost of production, increasing the selling price, which is directly affected by product quality. It is established that each percentage increase in price provides a greater increase in the level of profitability compared to such an increase at a lower level of profitability. In contrast to the increase in price, the increase in profitability in the event of a decrease in cost does not increase by the same amount, but tends to increase in the case of each decrease in cost by 1%. It is substantiated that the main directions of increasing the level of profitability are to reduce the cost of production and increase the selling price due to the growth of product quality, as these factors provide an increase in the studied indicator.

Sugar-sweetened beverage prices: Variations by beverage, food store, and neighborhood characteristics, 2017.

Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption is associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. A number of U.S. jurisdictions have levied volume-based specific SSB taxes. This study estimated baseline mean SSB prices across categories and sizes as this will help to determine the percentage increase in price resulting from the imposition of specific taxes.Data on food store SSB prices were collected in 2017 in Cook County, IL, St. Louis City/County, MO, Oakland, CA, and Sacramento, CA (N = 11,767 product-level observations from 581 stores). Data were weighted to represent volume sold by category and size. Mean prices per ounce were computed across categories and sizes. Linear regression models, clustered on store, were run to estimate associations between price per ounce and product characteristics, neighborhood (linked by census tract) characteristics, store type, and site.Weighted summary statistics show that the mean price of SSBs was 4.8 cents/oz. Soda was least expensive (3.4 cents/oz), followed by sports drinks (4.8 cents/oz), juice drinks (5.2 cents/oz), ready-to-drink tea/coffee (7.8 cents/oz), and energy drinks (19.9 cents/oz). Prices were higher for individual-sized (9.6 cents/oz) compared to family-sized drinks (>1 L/multi-pack; 3.5 cents/oz). Regression results revealed that prices were lower in stores in majority non-Hispanic black tracts and varied by beverage characteristics and store type but not tract-level socioeconomic status.Given substantial variation in prices by SSB category, a penny-per-ounce SSB tax, if fully passed through, would increase soda prices by 29% versus 5% for energy drinks, highlighting the potential importance of different specific tax rates across beverage categories.

Association Between Market Competition and Prices of Generic Topical Dermatology Drugs

During the last decade, increases in drug prices for commonly prescribed dermatologic medications have outpaced the rate of inflation, national health care growth, and reimbursements. Among nondermatologic medications, studies have shown a role for robust generic market competition in reducing drug prices. The association between competition and the costs of topical dermatologic generic drugs has not been evaluated. To characterize the association between changes in drug price and the number of US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved manufacturers among the most commonly used topical dermatologic generic products. This retrospective cost analysis of the most commonly prescribed topical dermatologic generic drugs used cumulative annual claims data from the Medicare Part D Prescriber Public User File to identify 597 dermatologist-prescribed drugs with more than 10 claims. The number of manufacturers and the price per unit were identified from the FDA Orange Book and the National Average Drug Acquisition Cost (NADAC) database, respectively, for 2013 through 2016. Drugs that were nondermatologic, were not topically administered, were missing NADAC data, were lacking a generic formulation, or had fewer than 400 claims were excluded. Primary outcomes included per-unit drug price and number of FDA-approved manufacturers. Pricing measures were adjusted for inflation and are reported in 2016 dollars. The present analysis included 116 topical dermatologic generic formulations, representing 70.5% of the total Medicare Part D dermatologist-coded claims from 2015. Drug formulations with 1 to 2 manufacturers during the study period sustained a median percentage increase in price of 12.7%, whereas those with more than 6 manufacturers had a median percentage decrease in price of 20.5%. Formulations with 1 to 2 manufacturers had a 20.6%, 19.5%, and 33.2% higher percentage increase in price than those with 3 to 4 manufacturers, 5 to 6 manufacturers, and more than 6 manufacturers, respectively. There was a statistically significant inverse association between the percentage change in drug price and median number of manufacturers (Spearman correlation coefficient, -0.26; P = .005). The negative association between the change in drug price and the median number of manufacturers of generic topical dermatologic drugs indicates a role for market competition in controlling the costs of generic drug prices within dermatology. These findings support policies that facilitate robust market competition among topical dermatologic generic drugs produced by a limited number of manufacturers.

Technology Focus: Natural Gas Processing and Handling (April 2017)

Technology Focus Natural gas had a bullish year in 2016 as the average Henry Hub spot price jumped from USD 2.28/million Btu in January to USD 3.59/million Btu in December (+58%), “the largest percentage increase in price among energy commodities,” according to the Energy Information Administration (EIA). According to the same source, the US market consumed 75.07 Bcf/D of gas in 2016, 0.6% more than 2015, while US consumer-grade natural-gas production was down 2.4% from 74.14 to 72.36 Bcf/D compared with 2015. Coupled with the electric-power (+4.2%) and industrial (+1.9%) sectors, this contributed to a noticeable rise in gas prices. Although the US is a net gas importer, 2016 officially marked the US as an exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) (by Cheniere Energy from zero in 2015 to 0.5 Bcf/D in 2016). While gas transportation primarily by pipeline over land and LNG over water remain the most economically attractive means to transport large quantities of gas over long distances, cost-effectively monetizing stranded gas is still a challenge, especially in offshore environments. A recent absorption-system development by ExxonMobil claims to improve the efficiency of removing water vapor from natural gas, in both on- and offshore environments, by shrinking the surface footprint by 70%, reducing the overall weight by half, and, ultimately, lowering the total cost. This technology should enable the development of some otherwise uneconomical fields. To learn more, attend the SPE workshop Floating LNG—Weathering the Challenges, in Kuala Lumpur on 20–21 March, and the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, on 9–11 October in San Antonio, Texas, USA. Recommended additional reading at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org. SPE 181610 Planning for Uncertainties in Gas Composition: Reduce Project Risks by Early Adoption of a Robust Gas-Processing Concept by Pavan Chilukuri, Shell, et al. SPE 183510 Flared-Gas Monetization With Modular Gas-to-Liquid Units: Oilfield Conversion of Associated Gas Into Petrol at Small Scales by Zhong He, Primus Green Energy, et al. SPE 183403 New Economical Process To Monetize High-CO2 Natural Gas by Conrad Ayasse, Canada Chemical Corporation, et al.

Risk and the Value Line Contest

Most of the direct evidence on portfolio and efficient markets theory developed in recent academic research requires a good mathematical and statistical background for comprehension. (Descriptions of purported contrary evidence can often be simply understood, but equally often contain serious theoretical and technical errors which are difficult to explain simply.) The Value Line Contest has enabled us to submit the academicians' results to a partial test that we can describe, and readers can understand, without mathematics. We hope our success in playing Value Line's game will signal to investors the importance of explicitly considering systematic risk and overall market movements before making decisions about individual stocks or before accepting stock recommendations. Value Line analyzes and ranks more than 1400 stocks. Periodically, Value Line stages a contest to attract investors' attention. To enter the most recent contest, one picked a portfolio of 25 stocks from the Value Line list. Contestants' portfolios are ranked by the average percentage increase in price of their 25 stocks over the contest period (which for the most recent contest was the six months beginning August 18, 1972 and ending February 16, 1973). The typical entrant in the Value Line Contest attempts to use his or her skills in security analysis to choose the 25 stocks likely to appreciate most in price over the contest period. Value Line expects that portfolios chosen from the stocks it ranks highest will outperform those chosen in other ways. If this expectation is realized, contestants and others who follow the contest may be sufficiently impressed to purchase Value Line's services on a regular basis. We entered the contest but we paid no attention to Value Line's rankings nor, for that matter, to any other source of analysis. Our strategy was based on implications of recent research on portfolio theory and efficient markets. We described our strategy and predicted its results on August 15, 1972 during the week preceding the start of the contest. The written description is reproduced in the appendix of this article. The original document was given to Richard M. Cyert, President of Carnegie-Mellon University, who signed, dated, and filed it (see letter next page). As you will see, our predictions were accurate and, if anything, too cautious. If capital markets are efficient,' security prices rationally reflect all publicly available information (including the recommendations and opinions of the Value Line Survey). A corollary of the efficient market theory is that two portfolios of equal risk are expected to have equal rates of return, even if one consists solely of stocks ranked in Group I (highest appreciation potential) by Value Line and one consists solely of stocks ranked in Robert S. Kaplan is Professor of Industrial Administration, Graduate School of Industrial Administration, Carnegie-Mellon University. Together with Rich.ard Roll he is author o,f Accounting Information and Stock Prices in the January-February 1973 issue of this Journal.

The Consideration of Economies in Merger Cases

In recent merger cases under section 7 of the Clayton Act, the courts have taken the position that improvements in efficiency produced by the merger cannot be given consideration as a defense if the merger also produced anticompetitive effects. In fact, the existence of economies has usually been given added weight in the reasoning for disallowing merger. For example, the presence of economies in advertising was used in the reasoning which prohibited the merger of Procter and Gamble with Clorox.' While the courts have used the possibilities of economies as reasons for disallowing mergers, the Justice Department has accepted the notion that some mergers can be justified by cost savings even though there may be anticompetitive effects as well. According to Justice Department guidelines on horizontal mergers, different standards are used for highly concentrated markets where the four largest firms have 75 percent or more of industry output than for less highly concentrated markets where the four largest firms have less than 75 percent.2 The difference suggests implicit welfare tradeoffs in effect in these guidelines between anticompetitive effects and the possible benefits of economies for different market structures, but no clue is provided as to the criteria used in developing these tradeoffs. The view that economies can be used to offset anticompetitive effects also was expressed by Justice Harlan in his concurring opinion in the Clorox case. He writes, Where the case against the merger rests on the probability of increased market power the merging companies may attempt to prove that there are countervailing economies reasonably probable which should be weighed against the adverse effects.3 But again, while economies have been suggested for consideration in merger cases, there are no criteria given for judging at what point the anticompetitive effects are outweighed by the cost savings. In the following sections, a model will be developed which will attempt to determine the relevant tradeoff conditions. An appraisal of firm strategy in the tradeoff situation is also made. This model develops further an initial formulation constructed by 0. E. Williamson who concluded, Since a relatively large percentage increase in price is usually required to offset the benefits from a 5 to 10 percent reduction in average costs, the existence of economies of this magnitude is sufficiently important to give the antitrust authorities pause before disallowing such a merger.4 However, Williamson's conclusion is unwarranted * This paper was written at the Center for Research in Government Policy and Business at the University of Rochester. The author received helpful comments from Walter Oi and James Ferguson.