Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale Research Articles

Comparison of the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale with physiological and self-reported stress responses during ecological momentary assessment and during participation in a virtual reality version of the Trier Social Stress Test

Valid approaches to conveniently measure stress reactivity are needed due to the growing evidence of its health-impairing effects. This study examined whether the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS) predicts cardiovascular and psychological responses to psychosocial stressors during daily life and during a virtual reality (VR) Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Medical students answered a standardized baseline questionnaire to assess perceived stress reactivity by the PSRS. The PSRS asks participants to rate the intensity of their typical affective responses to common stressors during daily life. They were further asked to participate in a VR-TSST and in an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) over a period of three consecutive workdays during daily life. Blood pressure and self-reported stress were repeatedly, heart rate variability (HRV) continuously measured during the VR-TSST and EMA. Furthermore, participants repeatedly assessed task demands, task control and social conflict during the EMA. Data was analysed using multilevel analysis and multiple linear regression. Results indicate that the PSRS moderates associations between blood pressure (but not HRV) and demands and control during daily life. Furthermore, the PSRS directly predicted self-reported stress, but did not moderate associations between self-reported stress and demands, control and social conflict. The PSRS did not predict physiological and self-reported stress responses to the VR-TSST. This study partly confirmed convergent validity of the PSRS to stress reactivity in daily life. Furthermore, the lack of association between the PSRS and stress responses to the VR-TSST calls for future studies to search for reliable and valid ways to assess stress reactivity.

Relationship Between Stress and Anxiety Regarding COVID-19 with Some Individual-Familial Characteristics Among First-Semester Students

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had many effects on various aspects of individuals’ lives, including causing physical and mental problems. One of the most common psychological problems, especially among first-semester students, is stress and anxiety related to COVID-19. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between stress and anxiety with some individual-familial characteristics of first-semester students. Methods: The current descriptive-analytical study was conducted on 106 first-semester nursing students with different educational levels at Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, in 2021. The sampling method in this study was census sampling. A researcher-made demographics questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale, and the Corona Disease Anxiety Scale were used for data collection. In the current study, the data were collected online using electronic questionnaires. SPSS software (version 26.0) and independent t-test, Spearman’s correlation, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used for data analysis. Results: The mean age of the participant was 22.3 ± 10.94 years. The total scores of anxiety and stress were 8.23 ± 5.85 and 19.38 ± 5.62, respectively. The results of Spearman’s correlation test showed a significant relationship between age and stress (P = 0.001, r = 0.290). The results of the t-test showed that there were significant differences between gender (P = 0.034), marital status (P = 0.003), and work experience (P = 0.008) with stress. In addition, a significant difference was observed between educational level and stress using ANOVA (P = 0.029). Conclusions: Paying more attention to the psychological health of first-semester students provides a favorable environment for their educational success during the COVID-19 pandemic because stress and anxiety affect students’ performance in various aspects of their individual and social lives.

STRESSOR REACTIVITY DEPENDS ON THE CORTISOL AWAKENING RESPONSE AND REACTIVITY TO WORK OVERLOAD

Abstract Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) was used to understand the influence of individual differences in stress reactivity measured by the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS) and the cortisol awakening response (CAR) on emotional reactivity to stressors, operationalized as the within-person change in negative affect (NA) associated with stressor exposure. Five times per day for 10 days, 178 working adults ages 20-80 years old (M = 49.22, SD = 19.07) reported in EMAs their current NA and whether they had experienced a stressor since the previous survey. During the same period, participants provided seven salivary cortisol samples per day. Samples collected at awakening and 30-minutes post-awakening were used to calculate the CAR. Steeper CARs are hypothesized to have a role in preparing individuals to cope with upcoming daily demands. Before the EMA period, participants completed the PSRS, including its Work Overload Reactivity subscale. Multilevel models revealed a significant 3-way interaction between Stressor Exposure x CAR x Work Overload Reactivity predicting daily NA. Individuals with high Work Overload generally reported greater NA, regardless of stressor exposure or the magnitude of their CAR. Individuals with low Work Overload reported lower levels of NA on days they experienced more stressors than usual and had steeper CARs. Effects remained significant after controlling for neuroticism and the Perceived Stress Scale. Findings suggest the CAR’s potential role of preparing individuals for upcoming demands is moderated by work-related stress reactivity. Steeper CARs on days with more stressor exposure may provide enhanced emotional benefits for individuals low in workload reactivity.

Daily Stressors and Physiological Reactivity: The Role of Perceived Stress, Stress Reactivity, Neuroticism, and Age

Exposure to stressful events is an inevitable aspect of everyday life, such as encountering work deadlines or interpersonal conflicts. The body’s physiological stress systems can become activated when exposed to stressors, resulting in increases in cortisol from the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and/or increases in the alpha-amylase enzyme via the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system. We predicted physiological reactivity measured by salivary assay in an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) design, using The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen, 1988), Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS; Schulz, Jansen, & Schlotz, 2005), neuroticism, (Big Five Inventory; John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991), and age. Adult participants (N=163) ages 20–80 years old (M=51.8 years) completed the individual differences measures and then provided seven saliva samples per day for 10 consecutive days while also completing five stress-related surveys per day via random-prompted EMA (Scott, Sliwinski, & Blanchard-Fields, 2013). Mean aggregate alpha-amylase correlated with the PSRS (r = -.20, p < .05) but not with the PSS or with neuroticism, suggesting alpha-amylase may be a more sensitive measure of subjective stress reactivity. In contrast, mean cortisol levels were not correlated with any of those measures. Age correlated with subjective stress (r = -.23, p < .05) and stress reactivity (r = -.20, p < .05) but not with hormone levels. Multilevel modeling will be used to evaluate within-person and between-person variation in stress hormones and EMA measures of daily stress in relation to the PSS, the PSRS, neuroticism, and age.

Exploring the Time Trend of Stress Levels While Using the Crowdsensing Mobile Health Platform, TrackYourStress, and the Influence of Perceived Stress Reactivity: Ecological Momentary Assessment Pilot Study.

BackgroundThe mobile phone app, TrackYourStress (TYS), is a new crowdsensing mobile health platform for ecological momentary assessments of perceived stress levels.ObjectiveIn this pilot study, we aimed to investigate the time trend of stress levels while using TYS for the entire population being studied and whether the individuals’ perceived stress reactivity moderates stress level changes while using TYS.MethodsUsing TYS, stress levels were measured repeatedly with the 4-item version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4), and perceived stress reactivity was measured once with the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS). A total of 78 nonclinical participants, who provided 1 PSRS assessment and at least 4 repeated PSS-4 measurements, were included in this pilot study. Linear multilevel models were used to analyze the time trend of stress levels and interactions with perceived stress reactivity.ResultsAcross the whole sample, stress levels did not change while using TYS (P=.83). Except for one subscale of the PSRS, interindividual differences in perceived stress reactivity did not influence the trajectories of stress levels. However, participants with higher scores on the PSRS subscale reactivity to failure showed a stronger increase of stress levels while using TYS than participants with lower scores (P=.04).ConclusionsTYS tracks the stress levels in daily life, and most of the results showed that stress levels do not change while using TYS. Controlled trials are necessary to evaluate whether it is specifically TYS or any other influence that worsens the stress levels of participants with higher reactivity to failure.

The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for Adolescent Athletes: Translation, Validity and Reliability Study

This study aims to analyze the validity and reliability of The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for Adolescent Athletes. 220 athletes including 111 females and 109 males from seventeen different sports branches participated in the study. The age mean of the participants was found to be 19.76±1.05. The sporting age mean was found to be 7.11±2.96. Data was collected by using The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for Adolescent Athletes (8), Perceived Stress Scale (9, 11). The factor structure was analyzed by using Confirmatory Factor Analysis in AMOS. Pearson Correlation test was used to analyze factor-factor relationship and criterion-related validity. The method of translation-back translation was used for the translation of the scale into Turkish. The results of the factor analysis displayed that 5-factor model had acceptable fit indices ( CFI=.83, SRMR=.07, RMSEA=.07 ). The 5-factor scale including the subscales of prolonged reactivity, reactivity to work overload, reactivity to social conflict, reactivity to social evaluation, and reactivity to failure had the same factor structure in Turkish athletes. Consequently, it can be said that The Turkish form of the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for Adolescent Athletes is valid and reliable.

The influence of mindfulness and social support on stress reactivity during pregnancy.

Exaggerated stress reactivity can lead to negative health outcomes, which can be especially harmful during important periods of development such as pregnancy. Therefore, studies are needed to examine potential protective factors associated with lower perceived stress reactivity and lower cortisol awakening response (CAR) during pregnancy. The current cross-sectional study examined whether low-income women (n=152) with higher mindfulness (attentiveness and awareness of the present moment) and more perceived social support had lower levels of perceived stress reactivity and a lower CAR during pregnancy. Women completed self-report measures of mindfulness (Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), social support (Medical Outcomes Study-Social Support Scale), and perceived stress reactivity (Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale) during their first trimester of pregnancy and collected saliva using the passive drool procedure at home (at awakening and at 30min after awakening). Results showed that women with greater mindfulness and greater perceived social support had significantly lower perceived stress reactivity, but not a lower CAR. These results provide preliminary support for mindfulness and social support as potential protective factors of perceived stress reactivity and have implications for experimental studies aimed at improving pregnant women's mindfulness and social support for reducing their stress reactivity and potentially improving health outcomes.

A Path Analysis of Adolescent Athletes' Perceived Stress Reactivity, Competition Appraisals, Emotions, Coping, and Performance Satisfaction.

This study examined a path analysis of adolescent athletes’ individual differences in perceived stress reactivity, competition appraisals, emotions, coping, and performance satisfaction. The study aimed to extend an analysis by Nicholls et al. (2012) and further validate the use of the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for Adolescent Athletes (PSRS-AA). Adolescent athletes (N = 229, M age = 18.55, SD = 2.40) completed the PSRS-AA followed by a measure of competition appraisals less than 1 h before a competitive event. Within an hour after the competitive event, participants completed a retrospective assessment of emotions, coping strategies, and subjective performance. A path analysis revealed that perceived stress reactivity had direct and indirect effects on the appraisal of higher stressor intensity, lower perceived control, higher perceived threat, negative emotions, and maladaptive coping. Increased threat, positive and negative emotions, and maladaptive coping were associated with performance satisfaction. However, task-orientated coping was not associated with performance satisfaction. The present study enhances and refines the validity of the PSRS-AA for assessing adolescent athletes’ perceived stress reactivity. Further strengths and weaknesses of the present study are discussed, along with recommendations for practitioners aiming to support adolescent athletes with high levels of stress reactivity.

Validating a Self-Report Measure of Student Athletes' Perceived Stress Reactivity: Associations With Heart-Rate Variability and Stress Appraisals.

Student athletes experience multiple stressors relating to both their sporting and academic commitments. Individual differences play a significant role in how well student athletes cope with the demands they face. When assessing individual differences in stress reactivity, there are a lack of valid alternatives to costly and time-consuming lab-based physiological methods (e.g., cortisol sampling, cardiac variables). This paper aims to further validate a self-report measure of adolescent athletes’ individual differences in perceived stress reactivity, by comparing to a psycho-physiological measure of emotion regulation (heart-rate variability) assessed during a socially evaluated cold pressor test. 30 student athletes and 31 student non-athletes completed a measure of perceived stress reactivity and took part in the socially evaluated cold pressor test while their heart-rate variability was assessed, along with their self-reported appraisals of stress, pain, and unpleasantness experienced during the procedure. Controlling for gender and athleticism, individual differences in perceived stress reactivity showed no associations with tonic or phasic levels of heart-rate variability. However, perceived stress reactivity was associated with levels of self-reported stress, pain, and unpleasantness experienced during the socially evaluated cold pressor test. These findings therefore suggest that perceived stress reactivity is associated with cognitive responses to stress (i.e., stress appraisals). However, further research is needed to confirm its relationship with physiological measures and responses. This further adds to the understanding of perceived stress reactivity, and validity of the perceived stress reactivity scale for adolescent athletes.

The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for adolescent athletes

Individual differences play a significant role in the outcomes experienced by adolescent athletes, in what is a highly stressful period of their development. Stress reactivity is a stable individual difference underlying the broad variability in responses to stress, which has received very little attention within sport. Conventional physiological measures of reactivity can be time-consuming, costly, and invasive; therefore, this study aimed to adapt a self-report measure of Perceived Stress Reactivity for use with adolescent athletes. 243 adolescent athletes competing in various sports completed the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale for adolescent athletes (PSRS-AA) along with measures of perceived stress, Big Five personality traits, and subjective well-being. The five-factor, 23 item structure of the original PSRS provided an adequate model fit for the PSRS-AA. There was good internal consistency and test retest reliability for the scale's measure of total reactivity. Total reactivity was positively associated with perceived stress, and negatively associated with emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and life satisfaction. Female adolescent athletes reported significantly higher stress reactivity than males. These findings provide good initial support for the use of PSRS-AA as a valid alternative to physiological measures of stress reactivity in youth sport contexts.

The association of sleep disturbances with endocrine and perceived stress reactivity measures in male employees.

Evidence on the relationship between stress reactivity and sleep is conflicting. This study examined the association between disturbed sleep and perceived and endocrine stress reactivity independently of age, body mass index (BMI), and chronic stress. One hundred and twenty middle-aged men were exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale were used to assess sleep and perceived stress reactivity, respectively. Endocrine stress reactivity was examined by assessing salivary cortisol levels. Regression analyses showed that men with disturbed sleep had blunted overall cortisol responses (b=-18.246, p=.044), but the association did not survive adjustment for age, BMI, and chronic stress. In contrast, poor sleep was associated with heightened perceived stress reactivity independently of age and BMI (b=0.235, p=.005), but additional adjustment for chronic stress attenuated the relationship and only chronic stress remained a significant predictor of perceived stress reactivity (b=0.470, p<.001). Cortisol and perceived stress reactivity were uncorrelated. In summary, our study indicates associations between sleep disturbances and stress reactivity were not independent of BMI and chronic stress levels, and endocrine and perceived stress reactivity were dissociated.

Perfectionism, Components of Stress Reactivity, and Depressive Symptoms

The current study examined the associations among dimensions of perfectionism, facets of stress reactivity, and self-reported depressive symptoms in 191 university students. Participants completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS), and a measure of depressive symptoms. The PSRS is a relatively new instrument that measures several distinguishable facets of stress reactivity including prolonged stress reactivity, reactivity to failure, and reactivity to social evaluation. Analyses confirmed that most of the perfectionism measures were associated with stress reactivity to failure experiences. Socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic automatic thoughts were also associated with prolonged stress reactivity and reactivity to social evaluation. Moreover, all facets of stress reactivity were correlated with depressive symptoms. Finally, prolonged stress reactivity and reactivity to social evaluation mediated the links between perfectionism dimensions and depressive symptoms. The current findings provide general support for models of perfectionism and stress, and suggest that perfectionists have heightened sensitivities to stressors related to their self-definitions that are activated when threatening stressors involving these themes are experienced.

Construct validation of self-reported stress scales.

The recently developed Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS; Schlotz, Yim, Zoccola, Jansen, & Schulz, 2011) examines perceived stress reactivity with 6 different subscales. The authors of the current study build on initial validation work with this scale by evaluating patterns of the convergent and discriminant validity of scores on its 6 substantially correlated subscales. Examination of the relationships between the 6 PSRS subscales and other variables (personality, depressive affect, eudaimonic well-being, environmental demands, and aspects of work) indicated some differentiation between the different facets of stress reactivity. The PSRS scales also correlated highly with the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). To account for all of these relationships, a structural regression model specifying a hierarchical factor model for the PSRS scales showed that some relationships (e.g., with neuroticism) were best modeled at the general stress factor level using a latent variable also defined by both the PSS and the PSRS subscales. The model also demonstrated lower level specific relationships that generated better fit than when all predictors were forced to relate to the PSRS only through the general stress factor. Results indicate that domain-specific aspects of stress can be differentiated, which ultimately could prove useful in research on mental health consequences of stress originating from different life domains.

The perceived stress reactivity scale: Measurement invariance, stability, and validity in three countries.

There is accumulating evidence that individual differences in stress reactivity contribute to the risk for stress-related disease. However, the assessment of stress reactivity remains challenging, and there is a relative lack of questionnaires reliably assessing this construct. We here present the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS), a 23-item questionnaire with 5 subscales and 1 overall scale, based on an existing German-language instrument. Perceived stress reactivity and related constructs were assessed in N = 2,040 participants from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany. The 5-factor structure of the PSRS was found to be similar in the 3 countries. In the U.S. sample the questionnaire was applied using 2 modes of administration (paper-pencil and computerized), and measures were repeated after 4 weeks. Measurement invariance analyses demonstrated full invariance across mode of administration and partial invariance across gender and countries. Scale scores differed between countries and genders, with women scoring higher on most scales. Overall, reliability analysis suggested good stability of PSRS scores over a 4-week period, and validation analysis showed expected associations with related constructs such as self-efficacy, neuroticism, chronic stress, and perceived stress. Perceived stress reactivity was also associated with depressive symptoms and sleep. These associations were particularly strong when individuals scoring high on perceived stress reactivity were exposed to chronic stress. In sum, our findings suggest that the PSRS is a useful and easy-to-administer instrument to assess perceived stress reactivity.

Supplemental Material for The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale: Measurement Invariance, Stability, and Validity in Three Countries

Supplemental Material for The Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale: Measurement Invariance, Stability, and Validity in Three Countries