Perceived Racial Discrimination Research Articles

Perceived Racial Discrimination, Psychological Distress, and Suicidal Behavior in Adolescence: Secondary Analysis of Cross-Sectional Data from a Statewide Youth Survey.

Developmental, clinical, and epidemiological research have demonstrated the salience of perceived racial discrimination (PRD) as a contributor to negative mental health outcomes in adolescence. This article summarizes secondary analyses of cross-sectional data from a large-scale youth survey within a predominantly rural state, to estimate the prevalence and strength of the association between PRD and serious psychological distress (SPD), suicidal ideation, and prior suicidal attempts. Data from 93,812 students enrolled in 6th, 8th, 10th, or 12th grade within 129 school districts across Kentucky were examined, to determine prevalence rates for subgroups within the cohort. Logistic regression analyses assessed the differences and established comparative strength of the association among these variables for racial/ethnic subgroups. PRD was self-reported at high rates across several demographic subgroups and was most evident among Black (24.5%) and Asian (22.1%) students. Multiracial students experienced the highest rates of both SPD and suicidality (ideation and prior attempt). Both for the entire cohort and for each racial/ethnic subgroup, PRD was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of negative mental health outcomes, although the strength of these associations varied across the subgroups and developmental levels. The implications for early intervention and prevention are discussed.

Does purpose in life or ethnic identity moderate the association for racial discrimination and suicide ideation in racial/ethnic minority emerging adults?

To examine purpose in life (PIL) and ethnic identity (EI) as buffers to suicide ideation for Asian American, Hispanic, and Black emerging adults who perceive racial discrimination. Two-hundred eighty-nine undergraduate students enrolled at a large university in the southwestern region of the United States (40.8% Asian American, 32.5% Hispanic, 26.6% Black; 61.2% women; mean age = 20.47, SD = 1.83) reported on experiences of racial discrimination, PIL, EI, and suicidal thoughts. Covariates were intrinsic religiosity, gender, and age. Regression analysis showed that EI was not a significant moderator for the association between perceived racial discrimination (PRD) and suicidal ideation (β = -.08, p = .13; 95% confidence interval (CI) [-.19, .03]). However, PIL was a significant moderator (β = -.11, p = .025; CI [-.20, -.01]). A hierarchical regression showed that PIL as a moderator explained additional variance (ΔR2 = 0.11, p < .001) in suicide ideation above and beyond EI. These findings provide some insight into how life purpose might ameliorate the impact of social stressors above and beyond a positive cultural identity for young racial/ethnic minority adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Perceived racial discrimination and polysubstance use among racial/ethnic minority adolescents in the United States

ObjectivePolysubstance use among adolescents is a significant public health concern, yet most studies on adolescent substance use focus on a singular substance. This study is one of the first to investigate the association between perceived racial discrimination (PRD) in school and polysubstance use among racial/ethnic minority adolescents using a nationally representative sample. MethodsData was from the 2021 Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey. The sample included 4145 racial/ethnic minority adolescents (52.8% female). Hierarchical binary logistic regression was used to examine the association between PRD in school and polysubstance use among racial/ethnic minority adolescents. ResultsAbout 12% of racial/ethnic minority adolescents engaged in polysubstance use and 23.4% reported experiencing PRD in school sometimes/most of the time/always. Controlling for other factors, experiencing PRD in school sometimes/most of the time/always was associated with 1.52 times higher odds of polysubstance use when compared to adolescents who never experienced PRD in school (OR=1.52, p=.044, 95% CI=1.01–2.30). Cyberbullying victimization, symptoms of depression, and being emotionally abused by a parent during COVID-19 were also associated with polysubstance use. ConclusionControlling for demographic characteristics and psychosocial stressors, PRD in school was significantly associated with higher odds of polysubstance use among racial/ethnic minority adolescents. The findings of this study could inform clinicians and policymakers of the association between PRD in school and polysubstance use, which could contribute to early identification of polysubstance use among racial/ethnic minority adolescents.

Perceived racial discrimination and suicidal behaviors among racial and ethnic minority adolescents in the United States: Findings from the 2021 adolescent behaviors and experiences survey

The objectives of this study were to investigate: (1) the prevalence of perceived racial discrimination (PRD) in school, among racial/ethnic minority adolescents, and (2) the association between PRD and suicidal behaviors among racial/ethnic minority adolescents in the United States. Data from a sample of 3241 racial/ethnic minority adolescents (53.7% female) from the 2021 Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey were analyzed using binary logistic regression. Controlling for other factors, racial/ethnic minority adolescents who experienced PRD had 1.57 times higher odds of experiencing suicidal ideation (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.57, 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) = 1.09–2.25), 1.64 times higher odds of making a suicide plan (AOR = 1.64, 95% CI = 1.09–2.49), and 1.67 times higher odds of attempting suicide (AOR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.04–2.68) during the past year. Other factors associated with suicidal behaviors included self-identifying as lesbian/gay, bisexual, or other/questioning; experiencing cyberbullying; feeling sad or hopeless; and poor mental health during the pandemic. The findings of this study extend past research and demonstrate that racial/ethnic minority adolescents who experienced PRD were more likely to report suicidal behaviors over and above other well-established risk factors for suicidal behaviors. Future studies that employ longitudinal designs are needed to elucidate mechanisms underlying these associations.

Perceived racial discrimination and eating habits: a systematic review and conceptual models.

There is no systematic review on the relationship between racial discrimination and eating habits. A systematic review was conducted to synthesize evidence on the association between perceived racial discrimination (PRD) and eating habits. A conceptual model was developed to depict the most common mechanisms used to explain this association. Articles were retrieved from the PubMed, Embase, LILACS, and PsycINFO databases from inception to January 2021. Only observational studies were included, and there were no restrictions on age, racial group, or country. Two reviewers selected the articles independently. Data were extracted independently by 2 reviewers. The assessment of methodological quality was conducted using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. All studies retrieved were conducted among the US population. Nineteen studies were included. On average, the studies showed a methodological quality of 66%. Forty-six associations were evaluated: 38 between PRD and negative eating habits, 29 between PRD and eating behavior, and 17 between PRD and food consumption. PRD negatively affects eating habits. A conceptual framework based on ecosocial theory is suggested as a guide for future research. Further studies in different countries (beyond the United States) should be conducted to understand how racial discrimination affects eating habits within different ethnic, cultural, social, and economic contexts. PROSPERO registration no. CRD42019142605.

The Influence of Distressed Coping on the Relationship between Perceived Racial Discrimination and Cannabis Use among Black College Students

ABSTRACT Approximately one in five Black students report cannabis use, which is associated with academic challenges, mental health, and interpersonal problems. Understanding motivators to use cannabis among Black students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) warrants more research. Perceived racial discrimination (PRD), believing one is treated unjustly due to race, is related to substance use and variables associated with poor coping, such as depression and anxiety. Given that research is unavailable for Black college students on the factor structure of the Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS) using chronicity-based coding, the first aim of the study is to examine the factor structure of the chronicity-based version of the EDS. The second aim is to investigate whether distressed coping is an intervening construct between PRD and cannabis use among Black college students. Participants, recruited from a midwestern PWI (N = 119), completed the EDS, the coping subscale of the Comprehensive Marijuana Motivations Measure, and reported past-year cannabis use. Factor analysis examined the measurement model of the EDS, while path analysis assessed the mediation models. A two-factor model assessing subtle and blatant PRD on the EDS fit the data. The path analysis revealed that distressed coping fully mediated the relationship between subtle PRD and cannabis use. Distressed coping did not mediate the relation between blatant PRD and cannabis use. Institutions might focus on reducing PRD and provide support to Black students to lessen its link to distressed coping and cannabis use.

Perceived Racial Discrimination and the Health of Black Youth in Ohio

Background: Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) is known to harm youth, yet few studies use large, representative samples or study caregivers' perceptions of their children's experiences with unjust treatment. We examined how such a measure of PRD was associated with demographic characteristics as well as with physical and mental health outcomes for Black youth across Ohio.Methods: The 2019 Ohio Medicaid Assessment Survey was a complex telephone survey with a representative sample of 31 558 adults, 907 of whom completed a proxy interview for a youth in the household who was Black and age 6 to 18 years. One item from an Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) scale assessed PRD: "To the best of your knowledge, has [name] ever experienced any of the following? Treated or judged unfairly because of [her/his] race or ethnic group."Results: Weighted analyses found that PRD was more common among Black youth who were older, from higher income families, and lived in rural counties. Perceived racial discrimination was also associated with frequent mental distress and with having an emotional or behavioral problem that needs treatment or counseling. It was not associated with any physical health outcomes measured.Conclusion: Our findings resemble those from other studies that use more extensive measures of PRD. While no substitute for extensive measures, the ACEs single-item measure may expand opportunities to study PRD in subgroup analyses of larger, representative samples. Yet our findings and those from other studies already provide considerable evidence that efforts to improve Black youth's mental health should consider their experience with PRD.

Perceived racial discrimination and polysubstance use among African American and Afro-Caribbean adults: Results from the National Survey of American Life

This study examined the relationship between perceived racial discrimination (PRD) and patterns of substance use. Data come from the 2001–2003 National Survey of American Life (N = 3,589). PRD was derived from the Major Experiences of Discrimination Scale. Multinomial logistic regression estimated the relationship between PRD and patterns of substance use (i.e., never/former, single-substance, dual-substance, and polysubstance [3+ substances]) based on six substances; effect modification by ethnicity and sex was assessed by stratification. Study findings indicated that PRD was associated with greater odds of lifetime and current polysubstance use. Results from the effect modification analyses suggested differential associations by ethnicity and sex.

The impact of early racial discrimination on illegal behavior, arrest, and incarceration among African Americans.

The prospective relations between perceived racial discrimination (PRD), assessed at 4 different time periods from childhood through adolescence, along with assessments of PRD from the police ("hassling"), and self-reports of arrest and incarceration at a mean age of 24.5 years, were examined in a sample of 889 African Americans from the Family and Community Health Study. Multiple covariates were included in the analyses (e.g., academic orientation, socioeconomic status, self-control). Structural equation modeling revealed relations between PRD, especially that assessed in childhood, and both arrest and incarceration reported in adulthood. Mediators of these relations included deviant affiliation and self-reports of both substance use and illegal behavior. PRD from the police directly predicted subsequent illegal behavior. Racial pride moderated reactions to both types of PRD: Persons high in racial pride reported more illegal behavior after PRD from police but less illegal behavior in the absence of perceived police discrimination and less illegal behavior overall. Finally, childhood PRD, but not adolescent PRD, directly predicted incarceration that occurred up to 14 years later, and it did so when controlling for arrest, self-reported illegal behavior, and other covariates. The importance of childhood PRD experiences and possible avenues of intervention suggested by the pattern of results are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial discrimination trajectories predicting psychological well-being: From emerging adulthood to adulthood.

Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) has been documented as a risk factor for worse psychological well-being among African Americans. Yet, most researchers have not examined how trajectories of PRD during emerging adulthood shape psychological well-being in adulthood. Moreover, less is known about whether demographic factors and components of racial identity shape PRD over time. We identified trajectories of PRD among 605 African American emerging adults and examined whether PRD trajectories were associated with depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and perceived lack of control in adulthood. Four trajectories of PRD were identified (i.e., high-stable, moderate-declining, low-rising, and low-stable), and demographic factors and racial identity indicators influenced the likelihood of trajectory classification. In addition, members of the moderate-declining trajectory exhibited higher levels of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and perceived lack of control than members in the low-stable trajectory. Our findings suggest that changes in PRD in emerging adulthood can extend our understanding of psychological well-being in adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Perceived Racial Discrimination and Marijuana Use a Decade Later; Gender Differences Among Black Youth.

Background: Researchers have reported gender differences in the association between perceived racial discrimination (PRD) and substance use including marijuana use (MU). A limited number of longitudinal studies, however, have documented the long-term effect of PRD during adolescence on subsequent MU in young adulthood.Objective: In the current longitudinal study, we tested gender differences in the association between baseline PRD during adolescence and subsequent MU during young adulthood within Black population.Methods: A cohort of 595 Black (278 male and 317 female) ninth grade students were followed for 13 years from 1999 (mean age 20) to 2012 (mean age 33). Participants were selected from an economically disadvantaged urban area in the Midwest, United States. The independent variable was PRD measured in 1999. The outcome was average MU between 2000 and 2012 (based on eight measurements). Covariates included age, socio-demographics (family structure, and parental employment), and substance use by friends and parents. Gender was the focal moderator. Linear regression was used for statistical analysis.Results: In the pooled sample, PRD in 1999 was not associated with average MU between 2000 and 2012. We did, however, find an interaction effect between baseline PRD and gender on average MU, suggesting stronger association for males than females. In gender-specific models, baseline PRD predicted average MU between 2000 and 2012 for males, but not for females.Conclusion: Exposure to PRD during late adolescence may have a larger role on MU of male than female Black young adults. Although we found that males are more vulnerable to the effects of PRD on MU, PRD should be prevented regardless of race, gender, and other social identities. While PRD is pervasive among Black Americans, exposure to PRD increase the risk of MU for Black males. Hence, substance use prevention efforts for Black males, in particular, should emphasize coping with PRD.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Association Between Adverse Childhood Experience, Perceived Discrimination and Body Mass Index in a National Sample of U.S. Older Adults

The current study evaluated whether there were racial/ethnic differences in the association between childhood adverse experience (ACEs), perceived racial discrimination (PRD), and body mass index (BMI) in a sample of middle age and older adults. We used data from the 2012–2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (N = 11,404; ≥55 years) that included ACE and past year experiences with PRD. Generalized linear models were stratified by race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic White (NHW; n = 7337), non-Hispanic Black (NHB; n = 1960), and Hispanic (n = 1249)). The prevalence of ACE and PRD was significantly greater in NHB (63.6 and 29.8%, respectively) and Hispanic (61.2 and 15.9%, respectively), relative to NHW (53.1 and 4.6%, respectively). Across race/ethnicity, exposure to ACE’s was associated with significantly greater odds of reporting PRD. Surprisingly, among Hispanics, exposure to ACE’s was generally associated with lower BMI; however, this association was moderated by PRD in that BMI was highest among those with no ACE’s and PRD, and lowest among those without ACE’s or PRD. Similar, but not significant, trends were found for NHW’s and NHB’s. Our findings highlight the importance of screening for psychosocial adversity across the life course as risks factors for high BMI among middle age and older adults, particularly among Hispanics.

Reports of perceived racial discrimination among African American children predict negative affect and smoking behavior in adulthood: A sensitive period hypothesis.

We examined the prospective relations between a cultural risk factor, perceived racial discrimination (PRD), and subsequent negative affect and health behavior (smoking) in a panel of 889 African American children (part of the Family and Community Health Study). Cultural moderators (protective factors) of these relations were also examined. PRD was assessed six times from ages 10.5 (Wave 1) to 24.5 (Wave 6), and negative affect (anger and depressive symptoms) was assessed at Wave 2 (age 12.5) and Wave 6 (age 24.5). Results indicated that Wave 1 PRD predicted Wave 6 smoking, controlling for multiple factors related to smoking and/or PRD, including smoking at age 15.5. Structural equation models indicated that these relations between Wave 1 PRD and smoking were mediated by both early and later negative affect. The models also indicated that Wave 1 PRD had a direct impact on Wave 6 anger (assessed 14 years later), controlling for the effects of PRD on early affect. Cultural socialization was associated with lower rates of adolescent smoking, and it buffered the relation between PRD and Wave 6 anger. The impact of early PRD experiences along with suggestions for culturally informed interventions and preventive interventions that might buffer against early PRD effects are discussed.

RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN CHILDHOOD ADVERSITY AND OBESITY IN A SAMPLE OF OLDER ADULTS

The prevalence of obesity is greater for racial minorities even in older adults. The present study evaluated whether there were racial differences in the association between childhood diversity (CA), perceived racial discrimination (PRD), and BMI in a racially-diverse nationally-representative sample of older adults. We used the data from the 2012–2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC-III; N=11,404 who are 55 years and older) that included self-reported height and weight, adverse life experiences before 18 years old, and past year experiences with racial discrimination. General linear models were performed stratifying by race (non-Hispanic White (NHW; n=7337), non-Hispanic Black (NHB; n=1960), and Hispanic (n=1249)). The prevalence of CA and PRD was significantly greater in NHB (63.6% and 29.8%, respectively) and Hispanic (61.2% and 15.9%, respectively), relative to NHW (53.1% and 4.6%, respectively). Across race/ethnicity, CA was associated with significantly greater odds of reporting PRD. Adjusting for sociodemographic and health risk factors (12-month stressful life events, smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, major depression, and sleep disorders), PRD was associated with increased BMI in NHW. In Hispanic, there was a CA-by-PRD interaction on BMI. Those without CA but with PRD reported the highest BMI, followed by those with both CA and PRD; BMI was the lowest for Hispanic without CA or PRD. CA and PRD were not significantly associated with BMI in NHB. Our findings highlights the importance of screening for CA and PRD as psychosocial risks factors for obesity among middle age and older adults, particularly for NHW and Hispanic.

Perceived Discrimination among Black Youth: An 18-Year Longitudinal Study.

Background: Recent research has suggested vulnerability to perceived racial discrimination (PRD) as a mechanism behind high levels of depression seen in high socioeconomic status (SES) Black males. To better understand the effects of gender and SES on shaping experiences of PRD among Black youth in the United States, we used data from the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS) to explore the trajectory of PRD in Black youth by gender, SES, and place. Methods: Data came from FACHS, 1997–2017, which followed 889 children aged 10–12 years old at Wave 1 (n = 478; 53.8% females and n = 411; 46.2% males) for up to 18 years. Data were collected in seven waves. The main predictors of interest were gender, SES (parent education and annual family income), age, and place of residence. Main outcomes of interest were baseline and slope of PRD. Latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) was used for data analysis. Results: Gender, SES, place, and age were correlated with baseline and change in PRD over time. Male, high family income, and younger Black youth reported lower PRD at baseline but a larger increase in PRD over time. Youth who lived in Iowa (in a predominantly White area) reported higher PRD at baseline and also an increase in PRD over time. High parental education was not associated with baseline or change in PRD. Conclusion: In the United States, Black youth who are male, high income, and live in predominantly White areas experience an increase in PRD over time. Future research is needed on the interactions between gender, SES, and place on exposure and vulnerability of Black youth to PRD. Such research may explain the increased risk of depression in high SES Black males.

Developmental histories of perceived racial discrimination and diurnal cortisol profiles in adulthood: A 20-year prospective study

Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) has been associated with altered diurnal cortisol rhythms in past cross-sectional research. We investigate whether developmental histories of PRD, assessed prospectively, are associated with adult diurnal cortisol profiles. One-hundred and twelve (N=50 Black, N=62 White) adults from the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study provided saliva samples in adulthood (at approximately age 32 years) at waking, 30min after waking, and at bedtime for 7 days. Diurnal cortisol measures were calculated, including waking cortisol levels, diurnal cortisol slopes, the cortisol awakening response (CAR), and average daily cortisol (AUC). These cortisol outcomes were predicted from measures of PRD obtained over a 20-year period beginning when individuals were in 7th grade (approximately age 12).Greater average PRD measured across the 20-year period predicted flatter adult diurnal cortisol slopes for both Black and White adults, and a lower CAR. Greater average PRD also predicted lower waking cortisol for Black, but not White adults. PRD experiences in adolescence accounted for many of these effects. When adolescent and young adult PRD are entered together predicting cortisol outcomes, PRD experiences in adolescence (but not young adulthood) significantly predicted flatter diurnal cortisol slopes for both Black and White adults. Adolescent, but not young adult PRD, also significantly predicted lower waking and lower average cortisol for Black adults. Young adult PRD was, however, a stronger predictor of the CAR, predicting a marginally lower CAR for Whites, and a significantly larger CAR for Blacks. Effects were robust to controlling for covariates including health behaviors, depression, income and parent education levels. PRD experiences interacted with parent education and income to predict aspects of the diurnal cortisol rhythm. Although these results suggest PRD influences on cortisol for both Blacks and Whites, the key findings suggest that the effects are more pervasive for Blacks, affecting multiple aspects of the cortisol diurnal rhythm. In addition, adolescence is a more sensitive developmental period than adulthood for the impacts of PRD on adult stress biology.

Racial Discrimination Experiences Among Black Youth

This study examines whether subgroups of Black youth exist based on the presence or absence of racial discrimination experiences in the school context and whether these groups varied by gender and household income. Latent transition analyses were performed on racial discrimination indicators derived when youth were in the 8th and 11th grades. Three distinct subgroups of youth emerged. Youth in the Teacher-Peer Perceived Racial Discrimination (PRD) group had a high probability of experiencing racial discrimination from both teachers and peers. Those in the Teacher PRD group had high probabilities of experiencing racial discrimination from teachers and a low probability of experiencing racial discrimination from their peers. Finally, youth in the No PRD group had low probabilities across all racial discrimination indicators. Males were more likely to be in the Teacher-Peer and Teacher PRD groups compared with females. Findings demonstrate the heterogeneity of Black youth’s experiences as it relates to race-related stress and several avenues for future research are identified.

Perceived Racial Discrimination as a Predictor of Health Behaviors: the Moderating Role of Gender

Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) has been implicated in undermining the mental and physical health of racial/ethnic minorities. Researchers have begun to explore the indirect role of health behaviors as one factor in helping to explain this relationship. The goal of the present study was to examine the relationship between PRD and a wide range of health behaviors using a prospective, longitudinal design and to explore the role of gender in moderating these relationships. Using data from the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study, we examined the relationship between adolescent PRD (accumulated across ages 14-21) and health behaviors (i.e., diet, substance use, exercise) at age 30 in a sample of middle-class black men and women. Using structural equation modeling, results revealed that more cumulative PRD during adolescence was associated with less healthy eating, more substance use (among men), and more exercise (among women) in young adulthood. Implications of these findings for understanding the role of health behaviors in explaining the link between PRD and health outcomes are considered.

Coping With Racism: What Works and Doesn’t Work for Black Women?

Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) has deleterious effects on Black Americans. However, there is minimal empirical research on the influence of gender and coping on the relationship between PRD and mental health. This study posited that coping style (i.e., problem-focused coping and avoidant coping) would moderate the relationship between PRD and depressive symptoms in Black women. The sample included 91 Black women (mean age of 23.32 years) from an urban New England university. The Schedule of Racist Events, the Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced scale, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale were used to measure PRD, coping style, and depressive symptoms, respectively. Multiple regressions showed that problem-focused and avoidant coping significantly moderated the relationship between lifetime PRD and depressive symptoms. In addition, avoidant coping significantly moderated the relationship between recent PRD and depressive symptoms. The directions of these findings indicate that higher levels of problem-focused coping may buffer the effects of PRD on depressive symptoms, and higher levels of avoidant coping may exacerbate the effects. Implications for Black women’s resiliency and susceptibility to mental health distress are discussed.

Individualistic and collectivistic worldviews: Implications for understanding perceptions of racial discrimination in African Americans and British Caribbean Americans.

Cultural worldviews and perceived racial discrimination were examined among Americans (n = 106) and British Caribbean Americans (n = 95), both of African descent, who were recruited through university student organizations, community organizations, and snowball sampling. Consistent with public perceptions of differences in the experience of race among these 2 groups, multiple regression analyses revealed African Americans were more likely than British Caribbean Americans to perceive racial discrimination in the United States. In addition, a cultural worldview focus on individuality and equality (i.e., horizontal individualism) moderated the relationship between ethnic group and perceived racial discrimination. British Caribbean Americans who endorsed greater agreement with horizontal individualism were less likely to perceive racial discrimination. The same worldview was unrelated to African Americans' perceptions of racial discrimination. The results are discussed with respect to within-group heterogeneity among persons of African descent. Implications for counseling persons of African descent and future research directions are discussed.