Perceived Peer Approval Research Articles

Is harmonizing to social drinking norms associated with alcohol use in Danish high school students?

Abstract Background Alcohol use is positively linked with perceived drinking norms within the peer group and the social plasticity hypothesis proposes that youth are very good at harmonizing to social norms (social attunement). Youth with high social attunement may adjust their drinking habits to the perceived drinking norms of the peer group to a higher extent potentially leading to a larger impact on personal alcohol use. This study examined if frequency of personal alcohol use was associated with perceived peer approval of drinking and the role of social attunement in Danish high school students aged 15-19 years. Methods An online survey was administered to 2977 first-year students from 16 public high schools in Denmark. Students reported past month alcohol use (drinking days, using TLFB) and perceived approval of alcohol use among peers of their grade. Social attunement was calculated as a sum score of the 11-item Dutch Social Attunement Questionnaire (SAQ) (range: 11-77; α = 0.81). Number of drinking days was analysed as dependent variable, with age, gender, perceived peer approval and SAQ-score as independent variables. Results Older students were more likely to perceive peers to approve drinking (β = 0.25; p = 0.004) and getting drunk (β = 0.22; p = 0.003). More females (83.2%) than males (81.8%; p = 0.003) perceived peers to approve youth getting drunk. Multilevel regressions showed increased drinking days for students perceiving peers to approve of drinking (β = 1.68; p < 0.001) and getting drunk (β = 1.80; p < 0.001). We found interaction between SAQ-score and perceived drinking norms (β=-0.10; p < 0.001) indicating that perceived peer approval had less effect on drinking days for students with high SAQ-score. Conclusions Social attunement explained additional variance in the association between personal alcohol use and perceived drinking norms. Our findings stress the importance of addressing the influence of behavioural adaptation in e.g. school-based health promotion programs. Key messages • Students perceiving peers to approve of youth alcohol use drink more frequent, but the link is weakened when the need to harmonize to perceived drinking norms are high. • Social attunement needs to be considered when examining the link between individual alcohol consumption and perceived drinking norms and should be addressed in e.g. school health programs.

Provider Perceptions and Use of Audit-Feedback and Communication Strategies to Improve Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Uptake

ObjectiveHuman papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine uptake remains suboptimal among US adolescents. A cluster randomized trial was conducted at six primary care practices in southeast Minnesota to assess the impact of parent reminder-recall letters and provider audit-feedback reports on 11–12-year-old HPV vaccine uptake. Audit-feedback reports included access to a web toolkit with instruction on two communication approaches. We evaluated the process of the audit-feedback report intervention to inform future adaptations. MethodsWe sent a survey to providers assigned to the intervention and asked about their use and perceptions of the reports, web toolkit, the communication approaches, and HPV vaccine recommendation. ResultsSurveys from 95 providers were analyzed. Most (97.9%) recalled receiving audit-feedback reports, with 92.4% finding them somewhat to very easy to understand, 86% somewhat to very familiar with their content and objectives, and 69.9% using them five or more times in the past year. Few respondents (11.6%) recalled receiving access to the web toolkit. Web analytics showed that the toolkit was rarely used. Most reported familiarity with communication approaches but less than half reported that these positively impacted the tone of the clinical encounter. Higher familiarity with audit-feedback reports (OR=2.58) and perceived peer approval about using presumptive language (the first of two communication approaches) to recommend HPV vaccination (OR=2.16) correlated with higher frequency of vaccine recommendation. ConclusionsImplementation of the audit-feedback reports showed good acceptability. Low utilization of the web toolkit suggests a need to further examine provider preferences on delivery and usability of training materials.

Process Evaluation of Food Game: A Gamified School-Based Intervention to Promote Healthier and More Sustainable Dietary Choices.

Food Game is a gamified school-based intervention that aims to promote healthier dietary choices (i.e., adherence to the Mediterranean diet) and more sustainable behaviors among high school students in an urban area in Northern Italy. The program consists of an offline and online competition in which groups of students participate in peer-led activities to design and communicate products promoting health and sustainability. This study aimed to examine how the program works in practice, understand its mechanisms of change and assess any variation in student outcomes. A mixed methods process evaluation was conducted. Students completed a three-wave longitudinal survey and participated in focus groups. Program staff and teachers were also interviewed. Qualitative and quantitative data analyses indicate that Food Game?s gamification strategy was successful in engaging students, who felt stimulated by the game, its embedded competition and the self-organized group work. Although no significant change in adherence to the Mediterranean diet was found, pro-environmental behaviors, attitudes and perceived peer approval on healthy eating increased over time. Findings provide preliminary support for Food Game as an acceptable and engaging intervention though there is yet not sufficient evidence that it is also promotes healthier and more sustainable behaviors. The results contribute to the limited evidence base for offline gamified school-based interventions and offer insight into the applicability of the gamification approach as a key motivational strategy in other prevention settings and contexts. Suggestions on how to strengthen the program include dosage increase and addition of activities to promote change on relevant school and community factors.

Rape Myth Acceptance and Sexual Aggression Among College Men: Examining Perceived Peer Approval as a Moderating Risk Factor

ABSTRACT The current study examines the independent and interactive effects of rape-myth acceptance and perceived peer approval for sexual violence on men’s ability to recognize sexual assault within a written vignette, and on men’s prior sexual assault perpetration history. Participants included a sample of 610 first-year college men from a large Midwestern University in the United States. Men completed survey assessments of rape myth acceptance, perceived peer approval for sexual violence, and history sexual assault perpetration since the age of 14. Participants also rated the extent to which hypothetical vignettes portraying coercive sexual activity were considered to be sexual assault. Data indicated significant main effects of both rape myth acceptance and perceived peer approval on recognizing sexual assault and for prior perpetration of sexual assault. A significant interaction between rape myth acceptance and perceived peer approval for sexual violence was detected for prior perpetration of sexual assault, indicating that expression of rape myths may be inhibited when peers are seen as unsupportive. Interactive effects between rape myth acceptance and perceived peer approval for sexual violence were not detected for recognizing sexual assault. Implications for sexual assault prevention are discussed, including the possibility that combining rape myth education correction of peer norms may inhibit individuals from acting on rape myths.

The impact of descriptive and injunctive norms on engagement in mobile phone use while driving in young drivers: A systematic review

Background/objectivesPrior research indicates that younger adults overestimate their peers’ engagement in risk-taking behaviours, with these estimates being directly associated with engagement in such behaviours. However, the extent to which younger adults perceive their peers’ approval of, and engagement in, road traffic violations (such as mobile phone use while driving) is yet to be clearly identified. Further, the influence of such perceptions on subsequent mobile phone use while driving behaviours remains unclear. Accordingly, the aim of this systematic review was to (a) examine young drivers’ perceptions regarding their peers’ approval of (injunctive norms), and engagement in (descriptive norms) mobile phone use while driving and (b) to identify whether such perceptions increase young drivers own engagement in the behaviour. MethodsStudies were eligible for review if they measured (a) perceived social norms (descriptive/injunctive) and (b) the relationship between such norms and mobile phone use while driving in younger adults aged 16–25 years. Searches were conducted in December 2021, using Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science, and TRID. Five articles were included in the review. ResultsOverall, the results indicate that young drivers perceive their peers to engage in mobile phone use while driving on a frequent basis, however they typically believe that their peers disapprove of the behaviour. The majority of studies indicated that descriptive norms were significantly associated with increasing engagement in mobile phone use while driving (including distracted driving behaviours). Finally, the few studies that investigated injunctive norms on mobile phone use while driving indicated positive correlations between perceived peer approval and increasing distracted driving behaviour. DiscussionThe findings highlight the importance of social norms in influencing behaviour, indicating that both descriptive and injunctive norms warrant further investigation when examining the impact of peer influences on mobile phone use while driving.

Correlates of Bystander Intervention Attitudes and Intentions Among Young Adult Active Duty Male Soldiers.

Sexual assault is a significant problem within the United States military. Bystander intervention skills training is recognized as a promising strategy for sexual assault prevention within both civilian and military populations. Sexual assault prevention programs which include training in bystander intervention teach individuals to notice situations that may pose a risk for harm and safely act to positively influence the outcome. This study examines correlates of bystander intervention attitudes and intentions among young adult active duty male soldiers (N = 282) between the ages of 18 and 24. Positive bystander intervention attitudes and intentions were associated with lower levels of rape myth acceptance, greater discomfort with sexism, lower likelihood of continuing an unwanted sexual advance after verbal resistance from a partner, greater likelihood of gaining verbal consent from a partner, and greater perceived peer approval for bystander intervention. In a multiple regression, perceived peer approval for bystander intervention and self-reported lower likelihood of continuing a sexual advance after verbal resistance from a partner emerged as significant predictors of positive bystander intervention attitudes and intentions (R2 = .41). Given that perceptions of peer norms are modifiable, these findings highlight the importance of addressing peer norms in bystander intervention training programs for military personnel.

Gender Equitable Attitudes, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Perceived Peer Approval of Violence as Correlates of High School Boys' Intention to Garner Sexual Consent.

The current study examines correlates of high school boys' intentions to garner consent in a future sexual encounter (N = 816). Bivariate correlation analyses demonstrated that increased intention to garner sexual consent was negatively correlated with rape myth acceptance and perceived peer acceptance of violence, and positively correlated with gender equitable attitudes. In multivariate linear regression analyses, perceived peer acceptance of violence and gender equitable attitudes remained significant in relation to intentions to garner sexual consent. Specifically, boys who reported a greater likelihood of perceiving their peers as accepting of violence and a lower likelihood of holding gender equitable attitudes also reported a lower likelihood to garner sexual consent. These findings highlight the importance of developing sexual assault prevention programs for high school boys that address the complex relationships between perceived peer norms, harmful gender role expectancies, and risk for sexual aggression. Results from this study also add to the existing literature on sexual consent communication in adolescents.

What Do Peers Think About Sexting? Adolescents’ Views of the Norms Guiding Sexting Behavior

This study examined the content of injunctive peer norms (i.e., perceived peer approval) of sexting among Swedish adolescents. Written answers from 808 adolescents ( Mage = 14.22) to an open-ended question about peers’ views of sexting were analyzed qualitatively using content analysis. Eight categories were distinguished for when and why sexting is acceptable or not in the peer group. A substantial share of adolescents believed their peers approve of sexting, especially if sexting occurs within trusted relationships and when all parties have consented. A large share of adolescents described that peers were non-accepting of sexting, emphasizing that it can be spread to others. The participants also suggested that sexting is seen as a gendered phenomenon surrounded by sexual double standards, with girls at more risk of negative consequences. Some participants emphasized the peer view that adolescents sext to seek attention, and some emphasized that sexting is viewed as an enjoyable activity. Several of these categories’ likelihood to be mentioned was related to the adolescents’ age, gender, and prior experience of sexting. We concluded that adolescents might have a hard time navigating the social context of sexting, given the conflicting and gendered messages from peers.

Cannabis use, self-perceived risk, perceived peer approval and parental attitudes among youth at clinical high-risk for psychosis.

Cannabis use is associated with greater likelihood of psychosis. The relationship between attitudes about cannabis and use has not been examined in youth at clinical high-risk (CHR) for psychosis. Additionally, the shifting legal landscape can provide a valuable context for evaluating use and related attitudes. This study included 174 participants (44 CHR, 43 healthy control [HC] youth-parent dyads). Youth completed measures of self-reported cannabis use confirmed with a urinalysis, self-perceived risk and perceived peer attitudes. Parents reported attitudes about youth use. Legalization occurred halfway during a 5-year study in Colorado, providing an opportunity to cross-sectionally examine its role in use and attitudes. Frequency of youth reporting cannabis use was significantly higher in CHR (69%) than control group (30%). Use in CHR group was associated with higher perceived peer approval (r=.57), increased parental permissiveness (r=.28) and lower self-perceived risk (r=-.26). Comparing samples participating pre and post-legalization, use remained stable within each group. Group differences in parental permissiveness shifted; trend toward decrease in permissiveness in CHR group (η2partial =.07) and a significant increase in HCs (η2partial =.16) were observed. Post-legalization, use in CHR group correlated with higher perceived peer approval (r=.64), lower self-perceived risk (r=-.51) and higher parental permissiveness (r=.35, trend). Taken together, results indicate a relationship between self and peer/parental attitudes about cannabis and use in youth at CHR for psychosis. These factors are important to consider within the legalization context given the changes in parental attitudes and a stronger association between use and attitudes in this group post-legalization.

Predictors of Sexual Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among Men: A Prospective Analysis.

Research demonstrates that both peer socialization and underage drinking play a significant role in teen dating violence. However, less is known about the lasting effects of these risk factors on boys' ability to form healthy romantic relationships as they get older. The present study examined whether boys who perceived their peers would respect them more for having sex and those who engaged in past year heavy alcohol use would be more likely to perpetrate sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) in young adulthood compared to boys who did not endorse perceived peer approval for sex or report past year heavy drinking. Analyses were conducted using a sample of boys (n = 1,189) from Waves I and III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). A logistic regression was conducted to assess the relationship between perceived peer approval to have sex and heavy alcohol use at Wave I and sexual IPV at Wave III, after adjusting for demographic factors and other correlates of sexual IPV at Wave I, including age, race/ethnicity, sexual initiation in adolescence, parental attachment, annual family income, and neighborhood poverty. Boys who believed they would gain peer respect by having sex and boys who reported getting drunk in the last 12 months, regardless of how often, were significantly more likely to report sexual IPV in young adulthood compared to boys who did not endorse either of these factors. Targeting boys' perceived peer norms regarding sexual activity and heavy alcohol use may therefore be especially important for preventing sexual IPV later in life.

Prescription Stimulant Misuse and Risk Correlates among Racially-Diverse Urban Adolescents

Background Most research on prescription stimulant misuse has focused on college students, and research on high school-aged adolescents is limited. Objectives This study aimed to characterize risk correlates of prescription stimulant misuse among a racially-diverse and socioeconomically-disadvantaged sample of urban adolescents. Method Cross-sectional data were drawn from an ongoing study of adolescent health behaviors, Project Teen. Participants were 414 9th to 11th graders (M age=16.00 [SD = 1.08]; 57% female; 41% Black or African American, 22% White, 18% Asian, 17% Multiracial, 2% Pacific Islander, and 1% Native American; 12% Hispanic/Latinx). Participants completed a web-based survey assessing prescription stimulant misuse, demographics, mental health and personality, social environment, and substance use. Results Eight percent of participants endorsed past-year prescription stimulant misuse. Compared to non-misusing peers, participants endorsing past-year prescription stimulant misuse reported greater depression/anxiety symptoms, sensation seeking, perceived peer risk behavior, and alcohol and cigarette use, as well as a lower level of parental monitoring; null group differences were observed for academic goal orientation, perceived peer approval of risk behavior, and cannabis use. Binary logistic regression demonstrated that binge drinking and cigarette use were significantly associated with prescription stimulant misuse over and above all other identified risk variables. Conclusions Adolescent prescription stimulant misuse appears to overlap with general adolescent substance use, sharing several known risk correlates. Results highlight potential targets for identification of emerging prescription stimulant misuse risk profiles at earlier stages of development. Longitudinal replication is needed to examine directional associations and risk mechanisms underlying adolescent prescription stimulant misuse.

Predictors of Opioid Misuse During Emerging Adulthood: An Examination of Adolescent Individual, Family and Peer Factors

IntroductionOpioid misuse has reached epidemic proportions among emerging adults in the U.S. To inform prevention efforts, this study examined adolescent factors related to alcohol and marijuana (AM) use that are associated with a higher or lower risk for opioid misuse during emerging adulthood. MethodsWe used 11 waves of survey data from a diverse California cohort (N = 6,509). Predictor variables from waves 1-7 (ages 11-17) included individual (resistance self-efficacy, positive expectancies) family (older sibling and important adult use), and peer (perceived norms, time spent with peers who use, peer approval) factors. Opioid misuse at wave 8 (mean age = 18.3) and wave 11 (mean age = 21.6) included heroin and nonmedical prescription drug use. ResultsInitial latent growth models (LGMs) indicated that nearly all intercepts and slopes for individual, family, and peer AM factors predicted opioid misuse at waves 8 and 11. These associations were reduced to non-significance after adjusting for prior other substance use with the exception of three intercepts: positive expectancies, peer approval, and older sibling use predicted a higher probability of opioid misuse at wave 8. ConclusionsStronger AM positive expectancies, perceived peer approval of AM use, and older sibling AM use during adolescence are associated with a higher likelihood of opioid misuse during the transition to emerging adulthood. However, most adolescent factors were no longer associated with subsequent opioid misuse after adjusting for history of other substance use, highlighting the importance of considering the larger context of substance use in studies of opioid misuse among young people.

Negative Cannabis Expectancies Are Associated with Drinking After Cannabis Use

With the increase in the number of states legalizing cannabis, driving after cannabis use (DACU) has become a significant public health concern nationwide and is one of the riskiest cannabis-related behaviors. Prior research has linked DACU with cannabis outcome expectancies, the positive and negative beliefs one holds about the effects of cannabis. The present study examined the relationships between cannabis expectancies and DACU in a sample of college cannabis users who have engaged in recent DACU. Participants were 85 college students who reported driving after cannabis use at least three times in the past three months. Participants completed measures that assessed positive and negative cannabis expectancies, perceived peer approval and dangerousness of DACU, and driving after cannabis use. In a negative binomial regression model, negative expectancies, perceived peer approval, and perceived dangerousness were significantly associated with DACU (p’s <.05). Positive expectancies of cannabis use were not significantly associated with DACU. These results provide evidence that negative expectancies of cannabis use are associated with DACU. In addition to perceptions of dangerousness and peer approval, cannabis expectancies may be an important prevention and intervention target.

Social norms towards smoking and vaping and associations with product use among youth in England, Canada, and the US

BackgroundThis study assesses differences in social norms towards smoking and vaping among youth across countries (England, Canada, US) and smoking and vaping status. MethodsData are from the 2017 ITC Youth Tobacco and Vaping Survey, among youth age 16–19 in England (N = 3444), Canada (N = 3327), and US (N = 3509). Prevalence of friend smoking, friend vaping, peer approval of smoking, and peer approval of vaping were estimated. Adjusted logistic regression models were estimated for each norm to assess associations with country, smoking status, and vaping status, adjusting for sociodemographics, alcohol use, and marijuana use. Results47% and 52% reported friend smoking and vaping respectively. Perceived peer approval of vaping (44%) was almost double that of smoking (23%). Compared with England, fewer Canadian and US youth reported friend smoking (Canada: AOR = 0.71 [95% CI = 0.62–0.82]; US: AOR = 0.54 [0.47–0.62]) and peer approval of smoking (Canada: AOR = 0.74 [0.63–0.87]; US: AOR = 0.78 [0.67–0.91]), yet more reported peer approval of vaping (Canada: AOR = 1.23 [1.08–1.41]; US: AOR = 1.30 [1.14–1.48]). More Canadian than English youth reported friend vaping (AOR = 1.17 [1.02–1.36]). Friend smoking, peer approval of smoking, and friend vaping were more common among smokers and vapers (all p < .02). Peer approval of vaping was more common among vapers but less common among smokers (all p < .044). ConclusionsYouth had more positive vaping than smoking norms. English youth reported the most pro-smoking but least pro-vaping norms in adjusted models; this was unexpected given country differences in regulatory environments. Norms towards both products were associated with use, with some evidence of cross-product associations between norms and behaviours.

The Role of Peers and Siblings in Adolescent Sexual Decisions

The purpose of this study was to examine the contributions of peer and sibling relationships to adolescent sexual attitudes and behavior. Data were collected from a sample of 492 participants, ages 14 to 18 years, from a large suburban high school in the Midwest. The results revealed that more than half of the female participants were initiated into nonvirginity by experienced males, which provides some support for the social contagion theory. Perceived peer approval was the strongest predictor, with siblings also contributing. Some mediation analyses were significant as well. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Developing Experimental Vignettes to Identify Gender Norms Associated With Transactional Sex for Adolescent Girls and Young Women in Central Uganda

PurposeTransactional sex or informal sexual exchange relationships increase adolescent girls' and young women's (AGYW) HIV and pregnancy risk in sub-Saharan Africa. These relationships are grounded in the shared expectation that men should provide financial support to their partners. We built a vignette experiment to assess whether gender norms influenced by expectations of provision help to explain how transactional sex increases AGYW's sexual and reproductive health risks. MethodsWe used mixed methods to develop a vignette experiment in Central Uganda with AGYW including 10 focus group discussions, 32 cognitive interviews, and a pilot survey experiment with 108 sexually active unmarried AGYW. Respondents were randomly assigned to one of the two manipulations for three vignettes. The vignettes examined whether the amount a man provided changed perceived social approval of men's authority in relationships, sexual decision-making power, or women having multiple partners. ResultsWe find that a higher level of male provision is associated with higher levels of perceived community approval for his sexual decision-making power (p < .001) and lower levels of perceived peer approval for AGYW's to seek a second partner (p < .05). We also find that higher levels of male provision are associated with respondent's own approval of male authority and sexual decision-making. ConclusionOur findings suggest that approval of men's sexual decision-making power increases when they provide more and that girls who seek a second partner find higher levels of social approval for this behavior when their primary partner provides less. Vignette experiments may be valuable for identifying social norms that put AGYW's sexual and reproductive health at risk.

Personal and perceived peer use and attitudes towards use of non-prescribed prescription sedatives and sleeping pills among university students in seven European countries

IntroductionThe use of non-prescribed prescription sedatives and sleeping pills (NPPSSP) among university students has been described as an important public health issue. However, the impact of perceived social norms on students' use and attitudes towards use of NPPSSP is still unclear. Our aim was to investigate whether perceptions of peer use and approval of use are associated with students' personal use and approval of NPPSSP use. MethodsCross-sectional data from the Social Norms Intervention for the prevention of Polydrug Use (SNIPE) project containing 4482 university students from seven European countries were analyzed to investigate self-other discrepancies regarding personal use and attitudes towards NPPSSP use. Associations between personal and perceived peer use and between personal and perceived approval of use were examined using multivariable logistic regression. ResultsThe majority (51.0%) of students perceived their peers' NPPSSP use to be higher than their personal use. 92.6% of students perceived their peers' approval of NPPSSP use to be identical or higher than their personal approval. Students perceiving that the majority of peers had used NPPSSP at least once displayed higher odds for personal lifetime use (OR: 1.95, 95% CI: 1.49–2.55). Perceived peer approval of NPPSSP use was associated with higher odds for personal approval (OR: 5.49, 95% CI: 4.63–6.51). ConclusionsAmong European university students, perceiving NPPSSP use and approval of use to be the norm was positively associated with students' personal NPPSSP use and approval of use, respectively. Interventions addressing perceived social norms may prevent or reduce NPPSSP use among university students.Final trial registration number: DRKS00004375 on the ‘German Clinical Trials Register’.

Descriptive and injunctive norms of waterpipe smoking among college students

IntroductionSmoking tobacco via a waterpipe (WP) is on the rise, particularly among college students. One reason for this may be normative perceptions of WP tobacco smoking (WTS) among this population. The current study examined the perceived and actual descriptive and injunctive norms of WTS among a college student sample. MethodsParticipants were 894 college students enrolled at a large, Midwestern university. Participants completed measures of WTS frequency and quantity and perceived/actual descriptive and injunctive norms of WTS. ResultsOver one-third of the sample reported ever trying WTS, while only 2% reported current (past month) use. When comparing ever and never WP smokers, ever smokers reported greater perceived peer approval of WTS. Both males and females overestimated WTS frequency of same-sex students at their university. DiscussionThe current study is one of the first to investigate descriptive and injunctive norms of WTS among college students. Students who report WTS are more likely to overestimate descriptive norms of WTS among their peers, suggesting corrective normative feedback regarding actual use by peers may be an important target for WTS intervention among college students. Future research should investigate the temporal association between normative perceptions and WTS behaviors among college students.

How acceptable are intoxicated behaviors? Discrepancy between personal versus perceived approval

IntroductionCollege students report high rates of binge drinking yet they reliably endorse elevated perceptions of drinking by their peers. However, the drinking norms literature offers little insight into how college students think about behaviors exhibited while intoxicated. This study aims to determine (a) if the predicted self-other differences (SODs) are seen among college students with respect to approval of intoxicated behaviors and (b) whether gender and race/ethnicity moderate these differences. We hypothesized that students would perceive others as more approving of intoxicated behaviors than they were themselves, resulting in significant SODs. We also predicted that women would have larger SODs relative to their male counterparts, and minority students would have larger SODs relative to their white counterparts. MethodsParticipants (N=233, 63% female) were recruited from an introductory psychology course at a large public northeastern university. They completed online surveys that assessed demographics, and responded to a list of intoxicated behaviors with ratings of personal approval and perceived peer approval. ResultsPerceived others' approval ratings exceeded personal approval ratings for 42 of the 44 different intoxicated behaviors. Women had significantly higher SODs relative to men and differed on personal approval. Non-white students had significantly higher SODs relative to white students, and differed both on personal approval and perceptions of others' approval of intoxicated behaviors. ConclusionsConsistent SODs were observed in the approval of intoxicated behaviors. These findings may help to inform normative feedback interventions by revealing the potential for normative pressure, especially for non-white students.

Latent growth classes of alcohol-related blackouts over the first 2 years of college.

Alcohol-related blackouts are common among college student drinkers. The present study extends prior work by examining latent growth classes of blackouts and several predictors of class membership. Participants (N = 709 college drinkers) completed a baseline survey at college entry and biweekly online assessments throughout freshman and sophomore years. Results revealed 5 latent growth class trajectories, reflecting varying experiences of blackouts at the beginning of college and differential change in blackouts over time. The largest class represented a relatively low-risk group (low decrease; 47.3%) characterized by endorsement of no or very low likelihood of blackouts, and decreasing likelihood of blackouts over time. Another decreasing risk group (high decrease; 11.1%) initially reported a high proportion of blackouts and had the steepest decrease in blackout risk over time. A small percentage showed consistently high likelihood of blackouts over time (high stable; 4.1%). The remaining 2 groups were distinguished by relatively moderate (moderate stable; 14.9%) and lower (low stable; 22.6%) likelihood of blackouts, which remained stable over time. Comparisons between classes revealed that students with greater perceived peer drinking, perceived peer approval of drinking, and enhancement motives upon entry to college tended to be in higher risk groups with consistent experiences of blackouts over time, whereas blackout likelihood decreased over time for students with greater conformity motives. Findings suggest that precollege preventive interventions may be strengthened by considering not only factors related to current risk for blackouts and other alcohol-related consequences, but also those factors related to persistence of these behaviors over time. (PsycINFO Database Record