Perceived Locus Of Causality Research Articles

Preliminary validation of the Perceived Locus of Causality scale for academic motivation in the context of university studies (PLOC-U).

Research has shown that self-determination theory can be useful in the study of motivation in sport and other forms of physical activity. The Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale was originally designed to study both. The current research presents and validates the new PLOC-U scale to measure academic motivation in the university context. We tested levels of self-determination before and after academic examinations. Also, we analysed degree of internalization of extrinsic motivation in students' practical activities. Two hundred and eighty-seven Spanish university students participated in the study. Data were collected at two time points to check the reliability and stability of PLOC-U by a test-retest procedure. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the PLOC-U. Also convergent validity was tested against the Academic Motivation Scale (EME-E). Confirmatory factor analysis showed optimum fit and good reliability of PLOC-U. It also presented excellent convergent validity with the EME-E and good stability over time. Our findings did not show any significant correlation between self-determination and expected results before academic examinations, but it did so afterwards, revealing greater regulation by and integration of extrinsic motivation. The high score obtained for extrinsic motivation points to a greater regulation associated with an external contingency (rewards in the practical coursework). PLOC-U is a good instrument for the measurement of academic motivation and provides a new tool to analyse self-determination among university students.

Perfectionism, 2×2 achievement goals and motivational regulations in physical education contexts

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationships between two subscales of perfectionism (self-imposed and external pressures), 2×2 achievement goals and motivational regulations (autonomous, controlled and amotivation) in physical education contexts. A sample of 428 students (249 male and 179 females) ages 12-16 completed a questionnaire including both subscales of perfectionism from the IPI (Inventario de Perfeccionismo Infantil), and the Spanish versions of the AGQ-PE (Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Physical Education) and PLOC (Perceived Locus of Causality). The hypothetical model was tested using a path analysis. Self-imposed positively predicted the four achievement goals, while external pressure negatively predicted mastery-approach goals, and directly and positively, controlled motivation and amotivation. This last one was also mediated by mastery-approach goals. Furthermore, approach goals positively predicted autonomous motivation, and performance goals, controlled motivation. Goal achievement patterns were confirmed and the implications in adolescent perfectionism are discussed. Teachers should promote the adoption of high personal standards and structures that promote mastery-approach goals among their students in order to increase their motivation.

Perfeccionismo, metas de logro 2 × 2 y regulaciones motivacionales en el contexto de la educación física

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationships between two subscales of perfectionism (self-imposed and external pressures), 2×2 achievement goals and motivational regulations (autonomous, controlled and amotivation) in physical education contexts.A sample of 428 students (249 male and 179 females) ages 12-16 completed a questionnaire including both subscales of perfectionism from the IPI (Inventario de Perfeccionismo Infantil), and the Spanish versions of the AGQ-PE (Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Physical Education) and PLOC (Perceived Locus of Causality). The hypothetical model was tested using a path analysis.Self-imposed positively predicted the four achievement goals, while external pressure negatively predicted mastery-approach goals, and directly and positively, controlled motivation and amotivation. This last one was also mediated by mastery-approach goals. Furthermore, approach goals positively predicted autonomous motivation, and performance goals, controlled motivation. Goal achievement patterns were confirmed and the implications in adolescent perfectionism are discussed.Teachers should promote the adoption of high personal standards and structures that promote mastery-approach goals among their students in order to increase their motivation.

Why Do We Work? Empirical Evidence on Work Motivation and the Effects of Management Control System Design on Work Motivation

Building on the concept of perceived locus of causality (PLOC), this study examines: 1) whether individual work motivation can be classified with the four orientations in the PLOC framework: intrinsic, identified, introjected, and external; 2) the effects of management control system design choices on each motivational orientation; 3) and the consequences of each motivational orientation on employee behavior. We address these research questions using an online survey of 592 U.S. employees from diverse industries and professions. We have the following findings: First, we develop and validate a scale of PLOC work motivation (PLOC-WM) and find that the four motivational orientations are distinct from each other and multiple motivations coexist within individual respondents. Second, we find that management control systems influence individual motivational orientations, incremental to individual personality effects. Finally, we find that motivational orientations have significant impact on individual effort, creativity, organizational identification, organizational citizenship behavior, and turnover intentions. We make a methodological contribution by developing and validating a scale of PLOC work motivation, which goes beyond the traditional intrinsic/extrinsic dichotomy and recognizes a richer range of motivation orientations. The scale we develop and the empirical evidence we provide on the links between control system design, motivation orientation and employee behavior will advance future accounting research on work motivation.

A cluster analysis on students' perceived motivational climate. Implications on psycho-social variables.

The aim of this study was to examine how students' perceptions of the class climate influence their basic psychological needs, motivational regulations, social goals and outcomes such as boredom, enjoyment, effort, and pressure/tension. 507 (267 males, 240 females) secondary education students agreed to participate. They completed a questionnaire that included the Spanish validated versions of Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2), Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise (BPNES), Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC), Social Goal Scale-Physical Education (SGS-PE), and several subscales of the IMI. A hierarchical cluster analysis uncovered four independent class climate profiles that were confirmed by a K-Means cluster analysis: "high ego", "low ego-task", "high ego-medium task", and "high task". Several MANOVAs were performed using these clusters as independent variables and the different outcomes as dependent variables (p < .01). Results linked high mastery class climates to positive consequences such as higher students' autonomy, competence, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, effort, enjoyment, responsibility and relationship, as well as low levels of amotivation, boredom and pressure/tension. Students' perceptions of a performance class climate made the positive scores decrease significantly. Cluster 3 revealed that a mastery oriented class structure undermines the negative behavioral and psychological effects of a performance class climate. This finding supports the buffering hypothesis of the achievement goal theory.

The revised perceived locus of causality in physical education scale: Psychometric evaluation among youth

Objectives Given instances of less than optimal internal consistency levels of the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale when applied to school-based physical education (PE), the aim of the study was to examine the psychometrics of a revised PLOC instrument for use in PE. Design A cross-sectional study in which self-report data on behavioral regulations, perceived autonomy support by the PE teacher, and subjective vitality were collected from 1729 students in relation to their PE participation at the elementary school (5th and 6th grade), middle school, and high school levels, including boys and girls. Results The revised instrument (PLOC-R) demonstrated satisfactory levels of internal consistency; a sound factor structure; evidence in support of a simplex-like structure; configural, metric, strong, and strict measurement invariance across boys and girls, students who participate or not in out-of-school sport activities, and across the three school grade levels; and nomological validity. Conclusions Initial evidence has emerged in favor of the PLOC-R as a scale appropriate for use with 5th and 6th grade elementary, middle school, and high school students to measure the degree of self-determined motivation for participation in compulsory school-based physical education classes.

Testing for multigroup invariance of the perceived locus of causality in sport

One popular scale in measuring motivation in sport is the perceived locus of causality (PLOC). While the scale has been widely utilized in sport, there is lack of empirical evidence to support the equivalence of the scale across diverse age groups. The Singapore government has recently initiated a new project to propel youths’ participation in sport. For an effective implementation of the project, it is important to develop students’ interests and motivation to continue their involvement and behavioural persistence for sport. The purpose of the study was to test the invariance of all PLOC items proposed to measure their respective factors across three age groups. A sample of 3289 students took part in the study. The results revealed that several items were perceived differently across the students in the three academic groups.

A Cross-Cultural Validation of Perceived Locus of Causality Scale in Physical Education Context

We examined the validity of the factor structure and invariance of the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale instrument scores across two nations endorsing collectivist (Singapore) and individualist (Great Britain) cultural values. Results indicated that confirmatory factor analytic models of the PLOC exhibited adequate ft according to multiple criteria within each sample and across samples. There was invariance in the item-intercepts across the two cultures. In addition, the simplex-like pattern of relations among the PLOC constructs was confirmed within cultures and in invariance analyses. Finally, latent factor means analysis revealed that the British participants tended to rate less self-determined forms of motivation lower than and more self-determined forms of motivation higher than the Singaporean participants.

Preliminary Validation in Spanish of a Scale Designed to Measure Motivation in Physical Education Classes: The Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) Scale

The purpose of this paper was to validate the Spanish version of the Perceived Locus of Causality Scale (PLOC; Goudas, Biddle, & Fox, 1994). To achieve this, two studies with samples of 1535 and 400 physical education students, of ages 12 to 17 years, were carried out. The psychometric properties of the PLOC were examined through the following analyses: confirmatory factor analysis, factor invariance, correlation among factors, reliability (Cronbach's alpha), temporal stability (test-retest), and criterion validity. The results partially supported the five-factor structure. This structure was invariant across the two study samples. Correlations among the subscales indicated a simplex pattern, supporting construct validity of the scale. Alpha values over .70 (except for introjected regulation) and high temporal stability (intra-class correlation coefficient = .83 to .90) over a four-week period were obtained. The mastery-approach goal positively predicted self-determined motivation, whereas the performance-avoidance goal predicted it negatively. Future studies should continue to analyze the psychometric properties of the PLOC, as the validation of an instrument should be an ongoing process.

A self-determination approach to understanding students' motivation in project work

The use of project work (PW) or project-based learning has escalated in Singapore since its inception by the Ministry of Education in the year 2000. There is however little information on students' motivation, and their experience of PW over time. This study sought to identify homogeneous groups of students with distinct perceived locus of causality (PLOC) profiles using a cluster analytic approach, and to examine group differences in their perceived psychological needs, emotions, metacognition, and perceived skills learned in PW over time. Four distinct clusters of students were identified. The “high self-determined/low controlled” group was the most adaptive cluster, and the “low self-determined/high controlled” group was the least adaptive cluster. The study affirms that the self-determination theory (SDT) can provide important insights into the motivational processes in PW. It establishes that students' motivational regulations and their perceived needs satisfaction at the start of PW are related to their experience of and learning in PW.

Antecedents and Outcomes of Perceived Locus of Causality: An Application of Self‐Determination Theory

We extended self‐determination theory by examining personality antecedents and self‐regulatory consequences of perceived locus of causality (PLOC), which is the extent to which individuals perceive their actions as caused by internal or external reasons. We theorized that personality would influence PLOC and that individuals with internal PLOC would engage in more self‐regulatory activities, which would in turn predict performance and enjoyment. We used structural equation modeling with data collected from 260 students at 4 time points to test our hypotheses. The model fit the data well. Although personality had direct effects on the self‐regulatory activities of effort and meta‐cognitive strategies, in addition to the indirect effects via PLOC, tests confirmed that including the indirect effects produced the best‐fitting model.

The influence of autonomous and controlling motives on physical activity intentions within the Theory of Planned Behaviour.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine how general motives from self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) influence intentions to engage in physical activity within the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985). It was hypothesized that the general motives will influence intentions only when mediated by the specific cognitions of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (PBC) from the TPB. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study assessing psychological variables from two theoretical perspectives. METHOD: Self-report questionnaires were administered to 1088 children aged 12-14 years. The children's intentions, attitudes, subjective norms and PBC towards participating in physical activity were assessed using a TPB questionnaire. A modified verson of Ryan and Connell's (1989) perceived locus of causality (PLOC) inventory was used to measure controlling and autonomous motives for participating in physical activity. RESULTS: These data were analysed using structural equation modelling. The resulting well-fitting model demonstrated that attitude and PBC mediated the influence of autonomous motives to perform physical activity on physical activity intentions. The presence of autonomous motives resulted in the effects of the controlling motives being attenuated to zero. CONCLUSIONS: The present results indicate that general autonomous motives to participate in physical activity act as sources of information when childen make their judgments regarding their specific attitudes and PBC. Attitudes and PBC are necessary to translate these general motives from SDT into intentions in the TPB. In terms of targets for intervention, practitioners may positively influence intentions by providing a choice of physical activities to foster increased autonomy in children.

Perceived locus of causality and internalization: examining reasons for acting in two domains.

Theories of internalization typically suggest that self-perceptions of the "causes" of (i.e. reasons for) behavior are differentiated along a continuum of autonomy that contains identifiable gradations. A model of perceived locus of causality (PLOC) is developed, using children's self-reported reasons for acting. In Project 1, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic types of reasons for achievement-related behaviors are shown to conform to a simplex-like (ordered correlation) structure in four samples. These reason categories are then related to existing measures of PLOC and to motivation. A second project examines 3 reason categories (external, introject, and identification) within the domain of prosocial behavior. Relations with measures of empathy, moral judgement and positive interpersonal relatedness are presented. Finally, the proposed model and conceptualization of PLOC are discussed with regard to intrapersonal versus interpersonal perception, internalization, cause-reason distinctions, and the significance of perceived autonomy in human behavior.