Penghu Canyon Research Articles

Submarine Small-Scale Features of Cyclic Steps in the Penghu Canyon: Implications for the Migration of Canyon

The submarine canyons are an important clue to study the evolution process of seafloor geomorphology and they generally indicate the significant linear grooves on the seafloor related to seafloor geodynamic erosion during the evolution of geomorphology. The submarine canyons or canyon groups are not only the channels for the sediment transport from shallow sediments with land-based sources to the deep sea in the sediment source-sink system, but also a key temporary sediment deposition area to study sediment transport patterns and the evolution of submarine geomorphology. In this paper, we processed and analyzed the multibeam bathymetry data acquired in the South China Sea continental margin by the research vessel “Dongfanghong 3” in 2020. Based on fine submarine geomorphological features identified from multibeam bathymetry data, we construct the formation pattern of the cyclic steps. The six cyclic steps (wavelengths of 1–6 km and wave heights of 19–81 m) are found in the lower section of the Penghu canyon and they appeared at the conjunction part of the Penghu and the Taiwan canyon. Based on location and the wavelength variations of the cyclic steps, we propose that the cyclic steps are formed by turbidity current flow along the Penghu and the Taiwan canyons. The axis of the cyclic step CS4–CS6 is shifted westward by about 5° compared to the axis of the cyclic step CS1–CS3. The inconsistency in the axis direction of the cyclic steps CS1–CS3 and CS4–CS6 suggests that is where the migration of the Penghu canyon occurred.

Large-scale scours formed by supercritical turbidity currents along the full length of a submarine canyon, northeast South China Sea

High-resolution multibeam bathymetric and seismic data enables a detailed morphological investigation of a submarine canyon (West Penghu Canyon) on the northeastern South China Sea margin, where twenty-three (23) scours are observed along the canyon thalweg. These scours form narrow topographic depressions in plan view and show asymmetrical morphologies in cross-section. The identified scours can be further divided into two groups (Types A and B) based on their sizes and relative locations. They are separated by a slope break at a water depth of ~2850 m. Type A scours (S1-S18) occur upslope from the slope break, whereas Type B scours (S19-S23) lie downslope from this same break. The scours are interpreted as net-erosional cyclic steps associated with turbidity currents flowing through the West Penghu Canyon; the currents that form Type A scours reflect higher V, Q, and Δel compared to the currents forming Type B scours. A change in slope gradient and loss of lateral confinement are proposed to control the change from Type A to Type B scours. Furthermore, Coriolis force influences the flow direction of turbidity currents, leading to the preferential development and larger incision depths of scours towards the southwestern flank of the West Penghu Canyon. Our results contribute to a better understanding on the origin of scours in submarine canyons across the world.

Estimating the composition of gas hydrate using 3D seismic data from Penghu Canyon, offshore Taiwan

Direct measurements of gas composition by drilling at a few hundred meters below seafloor can be costly, and a remote sensing method may be preferable. The hydrate occurrence is seismically shown by a bottom-simulating reflection (BSR) which is generally indicative of the base of the hydrate stability zone. With a good temperature profile from the seafloor to the depth of the BSR, a near-correct hydrate phase diagram can be calculated, which can be directly related to the hydrate composition. However, in the areas with high topographic anomalies of seafloor, the temperature profile is usually poorly defined, with scattered data. Here we used a remote method to reduce such scattering. We derived gas composition of hydrate in stability zone and reduced the scattering by considering depth-dependent geothermal conductivity and topographic corrections. Using 3D seismic data at the Penghu canyon, offshore SW Taiwan, we corrected for topographic focusing through 3D numerical thermal modeling. A temperature profile was fitted with a depth-dependent geothermal gradient, considering the increasing thermal conductivity with depth. Using a pore-water salinity of 2%, we constructed a gas hydrate phase model composed of 99% methane and 1% ethane to derive a temperature depth profile consistent with the seafloor temperature from in-situ measurements, and geochemical analyses of the pore fluids. The high methane content suggests predominantly biogenic source. The derived regional geothermal gradient is 40°C km-1. This method can be applied to other comparable marine environment to better constrain the composition of gas hydrate from BSR in a seismic data, in absence of direct sampling.

Westward advance of the deformation front and evolution of submarine canyons offshore of southwestern Taiwan

This study analyzes both 2D and 3D seismic images around the Palm Ridge area offshore of southwestern Taiwan to understand how the deformation front shifted westward and how tectonic activities interact with submarine canyon paths in the transition area between the active and passive margins. Palm Ridge is a submarine ridge that developed on the passive China continental margin by down-dip erosion of several tributaries of Penghu Canyon; it extends eastward across the deformation front into the submarine Taiwan accretionary wedge. The presence of proto-thrusts that are located west of the frontal thrust implies that the compressional stress field has advanced westward due to the convergence of the Philippine Sea Plate and Eurasian Plate. Since the deformation front is defined as the location of the most frontal contractional structure, no significant contractional structure should appear west of it. We thus suggest moving the location of the previously mapped deformation front farther west to where the westernmost proto-thrust lies. High-resolution seismic and bathymetric data reveal that the directions of the paleo-submarine canyons run transverse to the present slope dip, while the present submarine canyons head down slope in the study area. We propose that this might be the result of the westward migration of the deformation front that changed the paleo-bathymetry and thus the canyon path directions. The interactions of down-slope processes and active tectonics control the canyon paths in our study area.

The linkage between longitudinal sediment routing systems and basin types in the northern South China Sea in perspective of source-to-sink

Using bathymetric and seismic data, this study describes the morpho-sedimentary features in Qiongdongnan basin and southwest Taiwan collision basin, northern South China Sea and reveals the linkages between sediment routing system and basin types. The modern Central Canyon in the Qiongdongnan basin is located along the rift margin, and subparallel to the shelf-break southeast of Hainan Island. The modern Central Canyon develops along the basin axis (i.e., Xisha Trough) and longitudinally transports sediments eastward which are mainly supplied by northern continental slope. The Penghu Canyon in the southwest Taiwan collision basin is located along the collision boundary parallel to the strike of the adjacent uplifted Taiwan orogen. The Penghu Canyon develops along the tilting basin axis transporting sediments longitudinally southward to the deep-sea basin and Manila Trench. The Penghu Canyon is supplied with sediments from both flank Kaoping and South China Sea slopes where tributary canyons and channels transport sediments down-slope and feed the axial canyon.The certain basin types may be occupied by particular styles of sediment routing system. By comparing the morpho-sedimentary features and basin characteristics associated with the modern Central Canyon to that of the Valencia Channel in NW Mediterranean Sea, the longitudinal sediment routing system in rift basin type can be determined. In contrast, the longitudinal sediment routing systems in collision setting can be represented by the comparable examples of Penghu Canyon in southwest Taiwan collision basin and Markham Canyon in western Solomon Sea. The rift type sediment routing system is characterized by an axial canyon with a single sediment supply from land drainage margin. In contrast, sediment routing system in collision type basins consists of an axial canyon and dual sediment supplies from flank adjacent slopes. The axial canyons in collision basins are more active than that of the rift basin due to abundant sediment supply and active tectonics. The results demonstrate the role of longitudinal sediment transport in delivering terrestrial sediments for a long distance from land drainages (source) to far-field deep-sea basin (sink). This study has implication for better understanding of the linkages between basin mechanics, sediment routing systems and sedimentary processes.

Sedimentation in remnant ocean basin off SW Taiwan with implication for closing northeastern South China Sea

Taiwan is one of the most cited examples of modern mountain building in an oblique arc–continent collision. However, the recognition and significance of the Taiwan remnant ocean basin in the final stages of the collision of Luzon with the Chinese margin have long been ignored. This paper emphasizes the Taiwan remnant ocean basin as the main sink for sediments from the uplifted Taiwan suture zone and as a record of clues to the suturing history of the Taiwan collision zone. A part of the palaeo South China Sea has been closed by oblique collision of the Luzon Arc with the Chinese margin in the Taiwan region since about 4 Ma. As collision continued southward along the Taiwan–Luzon convergent zone the remaining South China Sea off SW Taiwan became the Taiwan remnant ocean basin. Beginning about 1.6 Ma much sediment from the longitudinal drainage of the Taiwan orogen was fed into this remaining basin and trapped in the intra-slope basins of the Kaoping slope, with some sediment bypassing via the Kaoping Canyon to the lower reach of the Penghu Canyon. This basin is characteristic of an axial canyon–deep-sea channel–oceanic trench system without significant sediment accumulation in submarine fans. Excess sediments from the Penghu Canyon mainly spill over out of the closing basin to the South China Sea and Manila Trench via the deep-sea Penghu Channel. The Taiwan–Luzon convergent zone continues along the NE South China Sea where the Taiwan remnant ocean basin exists. The implication of the convergence is that the Taiwan remnant ocean basin will keep shrinking in the next few million years southward to the northern end of the Manila Trench at around 20°N, where collision is replaced by subduction. The remnant ocean basin would be closed and deformed, and sediments would be accreted to uplifted collisional terranes north of the Manila Trench.

Morphology, seismic characteristics and development of the sediment dispersal system along the Taiwan–Luzon convergent margin

The sediment dispersal system along the convergent margin between Taiwan and Luzon links the terrestrial and shallow marine sediments from the source areas nearby Taiwan orogen to the ultimate sink in the northern Manila Trench. Using seismic reflection profiles and bathymetry mapping we determine three distinct morpho-tectonic features of the Penghu Submarine Canyon, deep-sea Penghu Channel and oceanic Manila Trench which are linearly interconnected to form a longitudinal sediment route. Seismic profiles show characteristic features of truncated strata along canyon walls and cut-and-fills in canyon bottom. Deformed and uplifted bathymetric ridges and troughs and volcanic intrusions with unstratified and chaotic seismic facies are associated with the Penghu Channel. The seismic facies of the trench wedge are characterized by sub-horizontal and conformable layers of sediment stacking upwards to the trench floor. The sediment wedge adjacent to the inner lower slope is deformed to blind folds and thrust faults as precursors of the accretionary prism. The most prominent seismic characteristics is wide-spread undulating reflectors on the seafloor along the west edge of the sediment dispersal system and the toe of the South China Sea Basin floor, suggesting a large sediment wave field with a turbidity currents origin. The location, orientation and geometry of this sediment routing system are mainly controlled by underlying tectonics in progressive changes from arc–continental collision in transition to subduction. The deep-sea Penghu Channel is formed by compression in transitional zone of the North Luzon Ridge region, neither subduction nor channel erosion. The sediments in northern Manila Trench are mainly transported by turbidity currents via the upslope deep-sea Penghu Channel and Penghu Canyon and trench axis is filled up to a flat-floor trench wedge without sediment ponding. A four-stage development of sediment dispersal system in Taiwan–Luzon convergent margin from Early Miocene to present is proposed. It consists of (1) initiation of the Manila Trench around 22 Ma during subduction stage, (2) formation of the deep-sea Penghu Channel about 6.5 Ma in transition stage, (3) submarine canyons forming in slopes southwest of Taiwan during incipient collision around 0.4 Ma, and (4) in the present late collision stage the modern Penghu Canyon developed.

Cyclic steps along the South Taiwan Shoal and West Penghu submarine canyons on the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea

Large-scale step-like features within the South Taiwan Shoal and West Penghu submarine canyons on the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea are investigated by integrating high-resolution multibeam bathymetric data and multichannel seismic profiles. These step-like features, ranging from 1.2 to 10.0 km in wavelength and 5.4–80.9 m in wave height, are mostly interpreted as cyclic steps formed by turbidity currents flowing through the canyons, based on their characteristic step-like morphology, in-train alignment, large wavelengths and aspect ratios (ratio of wavelength to wave height), and typical upstream-sloping backset bedding, among others. A train of 19 continuous steps delineated along the thalweg of the South Taiwan Shoal canyon measures up to 100 km and may be the longest ever reported. Nine short trains of scours identified on a terrace of the South Taiwan Shoal canyon are oriented parallel to the distributaries draining over the terrace and roughly perpendicular to the main canyon thalweg, indicating a complicated flow pattern within the canyon valley. Two trains of scours separated by an intracanyon high in the steeper middle reach of the West Penghu canyon are interpreted as transitional bed forms between antidunes and cyclic steps, which develop downstream into a train of five net-depositional cyclic steps with typical backset bedding in the gentler-sloping lower reach of the canyon. Average slope gradients for the canyon reaches with cyclic steps range from 0.26° to 1.24°. Along each thalweg step train, a slope break is identified to separate the net-erosional cyclic steps in the steeper upstream segment from the net-depositional ones in the gentler downstream segment. Rough estimations indicate that the paleoflows are 100 to 300 m thick with maximum velocities of up to 10 m s–1. The estimated flow depths match well with those inferred from geomorphologic analysis. Estimated paleodischarges of ?7–23 × 105 m3 s–1 are equivalent to ten times the discharge of the modern Amazon River.

Sediment dispersal system in the Taiwan–South China Sea collision zone along a convergent margin: A comparison with the Papua New Guinea collision zone of the western Solomon Sea

Through a large-scale examination of the morpho-sedimentary features on sea floors in the Taiwan–Luzon convergent margin, we determined the main sediment dispersal system which stretches from 23°N to 20°N and displays as an aligned linear sediment pathway, consisting of the Penghu Canyon, the deep-sea Penghu Channel and northern Manila Trench. The seafloor of South China Sea north of 21°N are underlain by a triangle-shaped collision marine basin, resulting from oblique collision between the Luzon Arc and Chinese margin, and are mainly occupied by two juxtaposed slopes, the South China Sea and Kaoping Slopes, and a southward tilting basin axis located along the Penghu Canyon. Two major tributary canyons of the Formosa and Kaoping and small channels and gullies on both slopes join into the axial Penghu Canyon and form a dendritic canyon drainage system in this collision marine basin. The canyon drainage system is characteristic of lateral sediment supply from flank slopes and axial sediment transport down-canyon following the tilting basin axis. The significance of the collision marine basin in term of source to sink is that sediments derived from nearby orogen and continental margins are transported to and accumulated in the collision basin, serving as a temporary sediment sink and major marine transport route along the basin axis. The comparison of the Taiwan–South China Sea collision zone with the Papua New Guinea collision zone of the western Solomon Sea reveals remarkable similarities in tectonic settings and sedimentary processes that have resulted in similar sediment dispersal systems consisting of (1) a canyon drainage network mainly in the collision basin and (2) a longitudinal sediment transport system comprising a linear connection of submarine canyon, deep-sea channel and oceanic trench beyond the collision marine basin.

Morpho-sedimentary evidence for a canyon–channel–trench interconnection along the Taiwan–Luzon plate margin, South China Sea

Examining bathymetric and seismic reflection data collected from the deep-sea region between Taiwan and Luzon in 2006 and 2008, we identified a connection between a submarine canyon, a deep-sea channel, and an oceanic trench in the northern South China Sea. The seafloor of the South China Sea north of 21°N is characterized by two broad slopes: the South China Sea Slope to the west, and the Kaoping Slope to the east, intersected by the prominent Penghu Canyon. This negative relief axis parallels the strike of the Taiwan orogen, extends downslope in an approx. N–S direction, and eventually merges with the northern Manila Trench via a hitherto unidentified channel. The discovery of this channel is pivotal, because it allows connecting the Penghu Canyon to the Manila Trench. This channel is 80 km long and 20–30 km wide, with water depths of 3,500–4,000 m. The progressive morphological changes recorded in the aligned canyon, channel, and trench suggest that they represent three distinct segments of the same longitudinal sediment conduit from southern Taiwan to the northern Manila Trench. Major sediment input would be via the Kaoping Canyon and Kaoping Slope, with a smaller contribution from the South China Sea Slope. We determined the northern end of the Manila Trench to be located at about 20°15′N, 120°15′E, where sediment accumulation has produced a bathymetry shallower than 4,000 m, thereby abruptly terminating the trench morphology. Comparison with existing data reveals a similarity with, for example, the Papua New Guinea–Solomon Sea Plate convergent zone, another modern analog of a mountain source to oceanic sink longitudinal sediment transport system comprising canyon–channel–trench interconnections.

Morphotectonics and sedimentation in convergent margin basins: An example from juxtaposed marginal sea basin and foreland basin, Northern South China Sea

Using reflection seismic profiles and bathymetric mapping this paper reveals the tectonic–sedimentary characteristics of the convergent margins in the northern South China Sea, where it is strongly related to flexure of Chinese rifted margin and overthrust of Taiwan orogen. Convergent margin tectonics of the South China Sea near southern Taiwan is characterized by a progressively northward transition from oceanic subduction along the Manila Trench to the incipient collision zone offshore southern Taiwan where the continental crust of the Eurasian plate subducts beneath the Philippine Sea plate. North of 21°N, dip angles of the Benioff zone increase up to 80° in the incipient collision zone where the Manila Trench becomes shallower, gradually loses its morphological identity and finally merges into the nearly N–S trending Penghu Canyon. Convergent margin tectonics in the initial collision zone in SW Taiwan is manifested by the beginning of flexure of the Chinese margin under the westward migrating overthrust belt of Taiwan, forming two distinct basins. On the passive Chinese margin, the marginal sea basin becomes smaller and is underlain by the South China Sea Slope, while on the active Taiwan margin, a wedge-top basin has formed above the frontal thrust sheets of the Taiwan orogenic wedge. Sediments derived from the Taiwan orogen progressively overlie the strata of the passive Chinese margin, resulting in sediment thickening and basin shallowing from south to north. Sedimentary facies shows that offshore deep-water mud is gradationally overlain by shallow marine sediments. Sediments of the wedge-top basin are being actively deformed into mud diapiric intrusions and a series of west-vergent thrusts and folds with their associated piggy-back basins, resulting in irregular topography of the sea floor with alternating sea ridges and troughs. Pliocene–Quaternary strata of the passive Chinese margin are a little deformed under the westward compression induced by the arc–continent collision in the southern Taiwan. The slope profile of the passive Chinese margin is characterized by a sigmoidal curvature, representing a typical primary depositional setting of a passive margin. Slope canyons occur mainly on the upper slope and cut the sea floor, resulting in irregular topography and representing effects of erosion. Being under the initial arc–continent condition, the offshore SW Taiwan has experienced the transition from a rifted margin to an overthrust belt and becomes a foreland basin, which is acting as a catch basin for orogenic debris derived from SW Taiwan. Arguments from tectonics and sedimentation suggest that the Koping shelf-slope region is considered to be an immature foreland basin rather than an accretionary wedge. More specifically, the Kaoping shelf-slope can be regarded as a depositional wedge top where exists an overlap area between rapid sedimentation and active deformation of the Kaoping shelf-slope sediments in the external orogenic wedge of southern Taiwan.

Shifting submarine canyons and development of a foreland basin in SW Taiwan: controls of foreland sedimentation and longitudinal sediment transport

The modern Penghu Submarine Canyon is a sea floor expression of the convergent boundary between the frontal Taiwan orogenic wedge and the Chinese cratonic margin. The canyon is about 180 km long and trends N‐S, parallel to the strike of the Taiwan mountain belt. It is w240 m deep at the head increasing to w3200 m deep at its mouth before merging gradually into the Manila Trench. The Penghu Canyon is considered a tectonically controlled canyon rather than a slope canyon dominated by down-slope processes. Tectonic controls prevail over sedimentary processes. Tectonics controls the orientation and location of the Penghu Canyon while sedimentary processes contribute to its excavation and enlargement. The axis of the deep-water, underfilled basin off SW Taiwan dips southward and parallels the strike of the Taiwan orogen with a characteristic longitudinal sediment transport route. Hence, the Penghu Canyon developed under the gravitational mass movement with its main course along the N‐S basin axis, not in a SW or SE downslope direction of both margins. The initial Penghu Canyon began at the intersection of the upper slopes of the South China Sea and Kaoping Slopes. Sediment flows cut into the slope sediments following regional dip toward the south, and excavated along the deepest part of the sea floor, forming the present Penghu Canyon. Shifting of axes of Late Pliocene‐Pleistocene canyons from onshore SW Taiwan to the present-day position of the Penghu Canyon reflects the evolving foreland basins with a longitudinal canyon transport system progressively migrating southwestward. The linkage of canyon migration and evolution of the foreland basin may have significant implications for the overall sedimentation and tectonics of the SW Taiwan region.

Hyperpycnal Discharge of Fluvial Sediment to the Ocean: Impact of Super‐Typhoon Herb (1996) on Taiwanese Rivers

Hyperpycnal events (when suspended sediment concentrations exceed 40 g/L) occur in small‐ and medium‐sized rivers throughout the world but are particularly common in Taiwan; they are often related to landslides or debris flows initiated and transported by typhoon floods. Super‐Typhoon Herb, which swept across Taiwan on July 31–August 2, 1996, triggered floods and landslides throughout the southern part of the island. Sediment concentrations in at least seven rivers (Taan, Choshui, Pachang, Erhjen, Tsengwen, Kaoping, and Peinan) approached or exceeded 40 g/L. Calculated sediment discharged from nine rivers (these seven as well as the Wu and Houlung, neither of which apparently reached hyperpycnal concentrations) during these 3 d was 217 million tons (MT)—most of it on August 1—of which ∼80% was discharged at hyperpycnal concentrations. Presumably, most of the sediments discharged by the Peinan River (to the southeast) and the Kaoping, Erhjen, Tsengwen, and Pachang rivers (to the southwest) were transported directly to the Huatong Basin and the South China Sea (via the Penghu Canyon system), respectively. The bulk of the typhoon‐derived sediment (142 MT), however, was discharged to the northwest (primarily by the Choshui River), and its fate remains unknown. It may have ultimately reached the Penghu Canyon system and thereby the South China Sea, but more probably it was transported northward (via the Taiwan Warm Current) toward China, the East China Sea, or (perhaps) the Okinawa Trough.

Nature and Distribution of the Deformation Front in the Luzon Arc-Chinese Continental Margin Collision Zone at Taiwan

Marine seismic reflection profiles from offshore SW Taiwan combined with onland geological data are used to investigate the distribution and nature of the deformation front west of Taiwan. Locations of the frontal structure west of Taiwan are generally connected in a linear fashion, although the alignment of frontal structures is offset by strike-slip faults. The deformation front begins from the northern Manila Trench near 21°N and continues northward along the course of the Penghu Submarine Canyon in a nearly N–S direction north of 21°N until it reaches the upper reaches of Penghu Canyon at about 22°15′N. The deformation front then changes direction sharply to the northeast. It connects to the Chungchou thrust fault or the Tainan anticline in the coastal plain and continues northwards along the outer Western Foothills to the northern coast of Taiwan near 25°N. Characteristics of structural style, strain regime, sedimentation and tectonics vary along the trend of the deformation front. Ramp anticlines, diapiric intrusion and incipient thrust faults are commonly associated with the deformation front. Variations in structural style along strike can be related to different stages of oblique collision in Taiwan. The deformation front (collision front) west of Taiwan can be considered as a boundary between contraction in the Taiwan orogen and extension west of the collision zone. The deformation front east of the Tainan Basin and its northward extension along the outer limit of the Western Foothills is the surface trace separating the foreland thrust belt from the nearby foredeep, not a boundary between the Chinese and Taiwan margins. The submarine deformation front off SW Taiwan is the surface trace separating the submerged Taiwan orogenic wedge from the Chinese passive continental margin, not a surface trace of the plate boundary between the Eurasian and Philippine Sea plates.

Geological Characteristics and Distribution of Submarine Physiographic Features in the Taiwan Region

The sea floor topography around Taiwan is characterized by the asymmetry of its shallow and flat shelves to the west and markedly deep troughs and basins to the south and east. Tectonics and sedimentation are major controls in forming the submarine physiographic features around Taiwan. Three Pliocene-Quaternary shelves are distributed north and west of Taiwan: East China Sea Shelf (passive margin shelf), the Taiwan Strait Shelf (foreland shelf), and Kaoping Shelf (island shelf) from north to south parallel to the strike of Taiwan orogen. Off northeastern Taiwan major morpho/tectonic features associated with plate subduction include E-W trending Ryukyu Trench, Yaeyama accretionary wedge, forearc basins, the Ryukyu Arcs, and the backarc basin of southern Okinawa Trough. Off eastern Taiwan lies the deep Huatung Basin on the Philippine Sea plate with a relatively flat floor, although several large submarine canyons are eroding and crossing the basin floor. Off southeastern Taiwan, the forearc region of the Luzon Arc has been deformed into five alternating N-S trending ridges and troughs during initial arc-continent collision. Among them, the submarine Hengchun Ridge is the seaward continuation of the Hengchun peninsula in southern Taiwan. Off southwestern Taiwan, the broad Kaoping Slope is the major submarine topographic feature with several noticeable submarine canyons. The Penghu Canyon separates this slope from the South China Sea Slope to the west and merges southwards into the Manila Trench in the northern South China Sea. Although most of sea floors of the Taiwan Strait are shallower than 60 m in water depth, there are three noticeable bathymetric lows and two highs in the Taiwan Strait. There exists a close relationship between hydrography and topography in the Taiwan Strait. The circulation of currents in the Taiwan Strait is strongly influenced by seasonal monsoon and semidiurnal tides. The Penghu Channel-Yunchang Ridge can be considered a modern tidal depositional system. The Taiwan Strait shelf has two phases of development. The early phase of the rift margin has developed during Paleoocene-Miocene and it has evolved to the foreland basin in Pliocene-Quaternary time. The present shelf morphology results mainly from combined effects of foreland subsidence and modern sedimentation overprinting that of the Late Pleistocene glaciation about 15,000 years ago.

Morphology and Geologic Implications of Penghu Channel off southwest Taiwan

Penghu Channel shows submarine valley morphology characterized by relatively shallow and wide elongate depression with gently sloping sides and a continuous bottom gradient. The possibility of being a river valley of the Penghu Channel during Late Pleistocene can not be ruled out. But, modern currents completely overprint the signature of inherited paleo-geo-morphology of a river valley. At present, Penghu Channel is considered as a scour furrow of probably erosion origin, mainly by northward tidal currents. It serves as a sediment pathway transporting shelf sediment alongshore and northward on the tide-dominated Taiwan Strait shelf. Penghu channel together with Yunchang Ridge to the north may be considered parts of a modern tidal erosion and deposition system. Bathymetric data indicate that Penghu Channel may not extend seaward into Penghu Canyon. The head and main course of Penghu Canyon are not aligned with Penghu Channel. They are two different undersea features, not a continuous sea valley. The hypothesis of an ancient Minchiang River flowing from China and extending southward to the sea through a sinuous valley on the exposed Taiwan Strait during Late Pleistocene is not supported by evidence of newly generated bathymetric chart and modern hydrodynamics.

Morpholoygy and Canyon Forming Processes of Upper Reach of the Penghu Submarine Canyon off Southwestern Taiwan

The main course of the Penghu Submarine Canyon is located along the intersection of bottoms of the Kaoping Slope and the South China Sea Slope in a nearly north-south direction. The Penghu Canyon can be considered a single head canyon with three major tributary canyons joining into the main course to form the fan-shaped upper reach of the canyon. The upper reach begins near the shelf edge of the Taiwan Strait Shelf and extends about 150 km southwards to a water depth about 2200 m at the lower slope where no tributary canyons are present. The upper reach of the Penghu Canyon shows high relief, steep walls and V -shaped cross sections, showing typical canyon morphology. Characteristics of seismic profiles suggest that the formation of the upper reach of the Penghu Canyon is mainly attributed to foreland basin sedimentation and accompanying incision of the syn-depositional orogenic sediments of the basin. Orogenic sediments derived from Taiwan progressively onlap westward and bury the Chinese passive margin and deposit in the bottom of the foreland basin. The main course of the Penghu Canyon has resulted mainly from excavating the orogneic sediments along the axis, tilting southward, of the deep foreland basin. Slumping and sliding and downward excavation into the sea floors by downslope sediment flows are the major forming processes in the canyon head and upper canyon part. Diapiric intrusion becomes important in the formation of the lower parts of the upper reach of the Penghu Canyon.

The Penghu Submarine Canyon off Southwestern Taiwan: Morphology and Origin

The main course of the Penghu Submarine Canyon extends along the intersection of the Kaoping Slope and the South China Sea Slope in a nearly north-south direction. It-is about 180 km long from its head below the shelfbreak of the Taiwan Strait Shelf to its mouth merging into the Manila Trench. This canyon consists of two distinct parts: an upper reach and a lower reach. Three major tributary canyons join into the main course to form a fanshaped upper reach of the canyon. It mainly occupies the upper slopes extensively cut by tributary canyons and gullies and has a maximum width of about 80 km opened up by tributary canyons. The upper reach shows high relief, steep walls and V-shaped cross sections, showing typical canyon morphology. The lower reach is characterized by a single course without tributary canyons. It shows broad trough in cross section and relatively small relief between edges and bottom of the canyon without characteristic canyon morphology. The floors of the Penghu Canyon show a gentle continuous inclination with an average slope angle of about one degree. A knick point about 2500 m deep separates the canyon into the upper reach with a steep slope angle f 1.42 degrees and the lower reach with a gentle slope angle of 0.5 degree. Canyon relief along its course changes from its head to the mouth considerably and ranges from about 54 to 845 m. Downward excavation by downslope sediment flows and slumping and sliding on the canyon walls are the major forming processes in the canyon head and upper part of the canyon. Head and upper part of the canyon. Diapiric intrusions are mainly responsible for the high relief of the lower parts of upper reach of the canyon. The lower reach of the canyon is mainly formed by low-intensity downward erosion and mild structural uplift by thrust faults.