Pelitic Samples Research Articles

Crystallization Sequence of the Spodumene-Rich Alijó Pegmatite (Northern Portugal) and Related Metasomatism on Its Host Rock

The Barroso–Alvão region is an excellent setting for studying Li mineralization associated with granitic pegmatites and developing Li exploration techniques. Among the distinguished pegmatite types in this pegmatite field, the spodumene-bearing dyke from Alijó is a representative example of an Iberian Li–Cs–Ta (LCT) pegmatite currently under exploitation. In this work, we examine the internal evolution of the Alijó dyke and its external metasomatic effect on the surrounding metasediments, contributing to lithium exploration techniques. Electron microprobe analyses provided clues about the crystallization conditions and the degree of differentiation of the pegmatitic melt, whereas the external metasomatism induced by the spodumene-bearing pegmatite was studied through whole-rock geochemistry. The obtained results indicate that the primary crystallization of the studied dyke likely occurred at temperatures between 450–500 °C, with emplacement at shallow crustal levels of about 2–3 kbar. The high concentrations of trace elements such as Li, Cs, Rb, Be, Sn, Nb, Ta, Ge, U, and Tl in the pegmatitic melt suggests high availability of these elements, allowing their partitioning into an early exsolved fluid phase. The exsolution of this fluid phase, subtracting components such as F and B, from the pegmatitic melt would cause a significant undercooling of the melt. Moreover, the interaction of this expelled fluid with the country rock generated a metasomatic overprint in the surrounding metasedimentary host rocks. The metasomatic effect in Alijó is strongly influenced by the nature of the host metasediments, with a significantly higher grade of metasomatism observed in pelitic (mica-rich) samples compared to psammitic (mica-poor) samples collected at same distances from the dyke. The greisen developed close to the pegmatite contact reflects this metasomatic signature, characterized by the mobilization of at least B, F, Li, Rb, Cs, Sn, Be, Nb, Ta, and Tl. We cautiously suggest that whole rock Li concentrations greater than 300 ppm, combined with a minimum value of 1000 ppm for the sum of B, F, Li, Rb, Cs, and Sn in pelitic metasediments of Barroso–Alvão, may be indicative of a mineralized pegmatite in this region.

Geochemistry of Pelites at Chengmen Area: Implications for Sediments Resource and Tectonic Environment.

The pelite samples were collected from drillholes from the Chengmen area of the Fuzhou Basin of Fujian, China to reveal the sediments resource and tectonic environment of these pelites via an analysis of its lithology and geochemistry. The rare earth element distribution pattern of the pelites exhibited a high degree of fractionation between light and heavy rare earth elements, moderate negative Eu anomalies, and positive Ce anomalies, which are consistent with the rare earth element distribution pattern of Minjiang sediments and Fujian soils. Moreover, the variations in trace elements are also generally consistent, indicating a common provenance. The extremely high chemical index of alteration (CIA) and index of chemical variability (ICV) values of the pelites suggest that the source area experienced intense weathering, indicating a subtropical hot and humid climate environment in the source area and the Fuzhou Basin at that time. The source rock attribute discrimination diagrams show that the main source of pelites is felsic igneous rocks. The ratios of REDOX parameters show that during the sedimentary period, the water body in the study area was predominantly in an oxidizing environment. Furthermore, the tectonic background diagrams reveal that the source area underwent geological tectonic evolution processes of active and passive continental margins, marking the transition from the continental margin above the subduction of the ancient Pacific plate to the continental margin extension after subduction cessation.

Reappraisal of the oldest high-pressure type schist in Japan: New zircon U-Pb age of the Kitomyo Schist of the Kurosegawa Belt

The Kitomyo Schist from Kurosegawa Belt, Shikoku, has been long considered as the oldest records of subduction metamorphism in Japan, based on an early 1970s K–Ar dating of white mica. The schist consists of mafic and pelitic layers and occurs as a tectonic block within serpentinite. Reappraisal of the schist confirmed the schist is characterized by an epidote-amphibolite peak metamorphic facies. The mafic portion is characterized by zoned amphibole + epidote + chlorite + titanite ± phengite ± rutile. The presences of relict rutile surrounded by titanite and the barroisitic cores of zoned amphibole suggest a high-pressure intermediate type metamorphism at the metamorphic peak (P = ~0.8–1.5 GPa and T = ~500–570 °C). The presence of Mn-rich garnet and the lack of biotite, oligoclase and paragonite also support high-pressure intermediate type metamorphism that eliminate the possibility of a typical blueschist-facies metamorphism. New SHRIMP and LA-ICPMS zircon U–Pb geochronology on a pelitic sample show detrital grains of Mesoproterozoic and Early Paleozoic ages, suggesting a maximum deposition age for the trench-fill sediment of ~440 Ma. Also the U–Pb data confirmed ~360 Ma overgrown rims that might have formed during the subduction zone epidote-amphibolite facies metamorphism. Reappraisal revealed that the Kitomyo Schist is not the oldest high-pressure type schist in Japan and rather comparable to the Late Paleozoic Renge Metamorphic Rocks and their equivalents in the Kurosegawa Belt. The Devono–Carboniferous high-pressure metamorphic rocks in Japan might have been paired with their coeval batholiths along the ‘Greater South China’ margin that was extensively eroded during later tectonic processes.

Geological anatomy of the Upper Triassic sequence in southeastern Tibet: Implication for tectonic evolution of the eastern Himalayan Orogen

Located south of the Yarlung‐Tsangpo Suture Zone (YTSZ), the Upper Triassic rocks of the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence (THS) in the Shannan area, southeastern Tibet, serve as an ideal geologic entity to investigate the post‐collisional evolution of the eastern Tethyan Himalayan realm. Detailed field observations suggest that D2 north‐verging folds and thrusts dominate the deformational pattern of the newly named Luolin Group, while D1 south‐verging imbricated structures characterize the Langjiexue Group and the Nieru Unit. Illite crystallinity measurements in pelitic samples indicate that the metamorphic grade decreases from epizonal in the Luolin Group to anchizonal facies in the Langjiexue‐Nieru Unit. Fluid inclusions from two stages of syn‐deformational quartz veins are characterized by moderate homogenization temperature (~260°C) and low salinity (5% NaCleqv). Electron microprobe analyses (EMPA) of garnet amphibolites show metamorphic temperature of ~510°C. The age of D1 event is determined by 40Ar–39Ar dating of phyllite sample at ca. 47 Ma. Correlations with regional deformational events through the THS demonstrate that the D2 event occurred between ca. 30 and 22 Ma. These data imply that the Upper Triassic sequence is part of the fold‐thrust belt of the Himalayan Orogen, rather than the accretionary mélange within the YTSZ.

Muscovite dehydration melting: Reaction mechanisms, microstructures, and implications for anatexis

AbstractDehydration melting of muscovite in metasedimentary sequences is the initially dominant mechanism of granitic melt generation in orogenic hinterlands. In dry (vapour‐absent) crust, muscovite reacts with quartz to produce K‐feldspar, sillimanite, and monzogranitic melt. When water vapour is present in excess, sillimanite and melt are the primary products of muscovite breakdown, and any K‐feldspar produced is due to melt crystallization. Here we document the reaction mechanisms that control nucleation and growth of K‐feldspar, sillimanite, and silicate melt in the metamorphic core of the Himalaya, and outline the microstructural criteria used to distinguish peritectic K‐feldspar from K‐feldspar grains formed during melt crystallization. We have characterized four stages of microstructural evolution in selected psammitic and pelitic samples from the Langtang and Everest regions: (a) K‐feldspar nucleates epitaxially on plagioclase while intergrowths of fibrolitic sillimanite and the remaining hydrous melt components replace muscovite. (b) In quartzofeldspathic domains, K‐feldspar replaces plagioclase by K+–Na+ cation exchange, while melt and intergrowths of sillimanite+quartz form in the aluminous domains. (c) At 7–8 vol.% melt generation, the system evolves from a closed to open system and all phases coarsen by up to two orders of magnitude, resulting in large K‐feldspar porphyroblasts. (d) Preferential crystallization of residual melt on K‐feldspar porphyroblasts and coarsened quartz forms an augen gneiss texture with a monzogranitic‐tonalitic matrix that contains intergrowths of sillimanite+tourmaline+muscovite+apatite. Initial poikiloblasts of peritectic K‐feldspar trap fine‐grained inclusions of quartz and biotite by replacement growth of matrix plagioclase. During subsequent coarsening, peritectic K‐feldspar grains overgrow and trap fabric‐aligned biotite, resulting in a core to rim coarsening of inclusion size. These microstructural criteria enable a mass balance of peritectic K‐feldspar and sillimanite to constrain the amount of free H2O present during muscovite dehydration. The resulting modal proportion of K‐feldspar in the Himalayan metamorphic core requires vapour‐absent conditions during muscovite dehydration melting and leucogranite formation, indicating that the generation of large volumes of granitic melts in orogenic belts is not necessarily contingent on an external source of fluids.

Evidence for Neoarchean Ni-Cu-bearing mafic intrusions along a major lithospheric structure: A case study from the south Rae craton (Canada)

Deformed and metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic intrusive rocks are common along and adjacent to the Snowbird Tectonic Zone, a major Paleoproterozoic structure separating the Rae and Hearne cratons. On the Rae side of this major lithospheric structure, we investigated a series of mafic bodies that intrude high-grade paragneiss and are associated with Ni–Cu ± PGE mineralization. By linking field observations, geochronology and metamorphic petrology, our results indicate Archean (∼2.63 Ga) crystallization ages for these mafic intrusions over a minimum along-strike extent of ∼500 km and a later high-temperature (∼820 °C and ∼7.5 kbar), Paleoproterozoic metamorphic overprint at t < 1.94 Ga. The youngest reproducible ages of detrital zircon from the host paragneiss indicate a maximum depositional age of ∼2.73 Ga for the paragneiss. These results indicate that the sedimentary rocks hosting the mineralized mafic intrusions are older than the mixed siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary units previously described along the Snowbird Tectonic Zone (<2.07 Ga). Furthermore, in two localities (Thye and Yotin-Shagory lakes, in Northwest Territories and northern Saskatchewan), zircon from both the mafic and pelitic samples exhibit an unusual within-run fluctuation in the lead isotope signal during SHRIMP analysis, suggesting inhomogeneous redistribution of radiogenic Pb within the crystal lattice. Redistribution is interpreted to have occurred during the ∼1.94–1.90 Ga tectonometamorphic event. This behaviour, documented only in ∼10 (Ultra)High-Temperature localities worldwide, has not been observed in the other two studied localities (Currie and Axis lakes in northern Saskatchewan), suggesting either i) a different metamorphic history or ii) different re-crystallization processes occurring during the Paleoproterozoic high-temperature evolution (or a combination of the two). Our data indicate that (U)HT metamorphism and the absence of a fluid/melt phase are not a requirement for lead redistribution in zircon.

Metamorphic condition of a regional metamorphic complex in the Omuta district in northern Kyushu, southwest Japan

AbstractA high‐temperature (T) metamorphic complex occurs in the Omuta district, northern Kyushu, Japan. Three metamorphic zones are defined based on pelitic mineral assemblage, i.e. chlorite–biotite zone, muscovite–andalusite zone and sillimanite–K‐feldspar zone with ascending metamorphic grade from north to south. Two isograds trend approximately east–west, which is oblique to the boundary between the metamorphic complex and the Tamana Granodiorite located on the southeast. The metamorphic condition of two pelitic rocks that occur in the muscovite–andalusite zone and sillimanite–K‐feldspar zone are estimated as 510 ±30 °C, 300 ±60 MPa and 720 ±30 °C, 620 ±60 MPa, respectively. Thermodynamic consideration reveals that use of the same geothermobarometer enables precise determination of the difference in pressure between the samples as 320 ±10 MPa. This indicates that the pelitic samples were metamorphosed at different depth by 11–12 km that is significantly larger than the geographic distance of 6.8 km between the sample localities. This also suggests that crustal thinning took place after the high‐T metamorphism. The high‐T metamorphic complex is, therefore, not of static contact metamorphism but of dynamic regional metamorphism. The present result combined with petrological and chronological similarities implies that this complex suffered the regional Ryoke metamorphism.

Migmatization and low-pressure overprinting metamorphism as record of two pre-Cretaceous tectonic episodes in the Santander Massif of the Andean basement in northern Colombia (NW South America)

The core of the Santander Massif in the northern Andes of Colombia is dominated by migmatitic gneisses with a <1.71Ga protolith and was affected by continuous interactions of oceanic plates to the west and the northwestern corner of the South American continental plate. The exposed metamorphic core of the massif offers a unique opportunity to understand the tectonic evolution of northwestern South America. We present new metamorphic petrology and geochemistry data from the Bucaramanga Gneiss in the Santander Massif to document part of this tectonic evolution from late Proterozoic to Jurassic times.Metapelitic migmatite gneiss, quartz-feldspathic gneiss, and amphibolite from the Bucaramanga Gneiss recorded metamorphic peak conditions in the range of 660–850°C at pressures of >7.5kbar. Lithologies are overprinted by low-pressure metamorphism, related to extensive Jurassic intrusions and linked with growth of cordierite and equilibration of low-pressure mineral assemblages, recorded metamorphic conditions are <750°C and <6.5kbar.Observed leucosomes display significant compositional variations and can be grouped in three groups: i) Group One leucosomes with high total REE content, high LREE/HREE, and negative Eu anomaly, ii) Group Two leucosomes with low total REE, low LREE/HREE, and positive Eu anomalies, and iii) Group Three leucosomes with relatively low LREE/HREE and strong positive Eu anomaly. Geochemical data support the interpretation that Group Two leucosomes crystallized from melts originated in a partial melting event affecting mostly pelitic and quartz-feldspathic lithologies with fluid-present melting reactions. The evaluation of mesosomes (amphibolite, pelitic and quartz-feldspathic rocks) as potential protoliths or restites indicates that at least two pelitic samples of the analyzed lithologies have characteristics consistent with the occurrence of fluid-present melting reactions involving quartz and feldspar. The leucosomes produced by crystallization of modified partial melts contrast with several other leucosomes that were injected; however, in some cases the melts crystallized as injected leucosomes show consistent geochemistry with partial melting of lithologies geochemically similar to the ones observed in the unit.The migmatization and the low pressure metamorphic overprint are related here to two main tectonic events: an early Paleozoic tectonic pulse produced by subduction of the oceanic crust of the Iapetus Ocean beneath northwestern Gondwana, and an Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic tectonic pulse produced by subduction of oceanic crust of the proto-Pacific ocean beneath western Pangaea.

Metamorphic P–T evolution of garnet-staurolite-biotite pelitic schist and amphibolite from Keffi, north-central Nigeria: Geothermobarometry, mineral equilibrium modeling and P-T path

We report the first detailed petrological and pressure-temperature data from the pelitic schists and amphibolites of the Keffi area, north-central Nigeria, which is located on the eastern flank of the western Nigerian based, Great Nigerian Schist Belt. In one fresh exposure of the schist, staurolite-bearing and staurolite-absent, garnet-rich assemblages occur. All pelitic samples contain garnet, quartz, biotite, plagioclase, chlorite and ilmenite, but the staurolite-bearing assemblage contains euhedral to subhedral staurolites and very subordinate retrograde chlorites in addition. Mineral compositions applied to calculate metamorphic P–T conditions using different approaches reveal a temperature range of 570–630 °C for the garnet-biotite geothermometry. P–T pseudosection analyses calculated using THERMOCALC software for the suitable rock types, constrain garnet/staurolite equilibration within the range of 6.4–7.7 kbar and 610–630 °C. Empirical calculations and pseudo-section approaches indicate a clockwise P-T path for the rocks of the study area. The result of geothermobarometry (peak conditions) from this study is consistent with previous P–T estimations for the Pan-African episode on several areas within the Trans-Saharan Belt. All evidences point towards a magmatic arc tectonic setting for this area of study.

Very low-temperature metamorphism in Ordovician metasedimentary rocks above and below the Sardic unconformity, SW Sardinia, Italy

In the Iglesiente region, the Cabitza and Monte Argentu Formations are separated by an angular unconformity known as the Sardic unconformity. This is related to an early Ordovician mild compressional phase, known as the “Sardic phase”. The pelitic samples from the structurally lower Cabitza Formation consist of alternating reddish phyllosilicate-rich and whitish phyllosilicate-poor, sialic layers, whose S0 bedding plane is parallel to a pre-Variscan S1P schistosity overprinted by the Variscan S1V schistosity. Pelitic samples from the Monte Argentu Formation are characterized by a Variscan S1V axial plane schistosity. Samples from the two formations consist of quartz and phyllosilicates. The latter are potassic white mica, chlorite, paragonite, locally kaolinite, and pyrophyllite. The illite crystallinity values determined for the Cabitza samples are 0.25–0.31, with an average of 0.29; meanwhile, the Monte Argentu samples produce values of 0.33–0.38, with an average of 0.35. The chlorite crystallinity and b0 of potassic white mica values show greater heterogeneity in the Cabitza than the Monte Argentu samples. The b0 values and P–T pseudosections allow us to confirm that there is no significant difference in the P–T metamorphism conditions between the Cabitza and Monte Argentu samples. The Iglesiente region, which is considered to be the rift zone behind the Middle Ordovician Sarcidano–Barbagia volcanic arc, underwent the “Sardic phase”, giving rise to E–W folds. These were first overprinted by weak E–W, and then by stronger N–S-oriented Variscan deformation events.

Correlating illite (Kübler) and chlorite (Árkai) “crystallinity” indices with metamorphic mineral zones of the South Island, New Zealand

Measuring clay mineral “crystallinity” by the illite “Kübler” or chlorite “Árkai” index has long been used to determine the metamorphic grade of pelitic metasedimentary rocks by recognition of the anchizone: a transitional state of regional metamorphism lying between diagenetic and low-grade metamorphic conditions. Originally defined by B. Kübler on the basis of clay mineral paragenesis, the application of the anchizone as a metamorphic tool has remained ambiguous partly due to inconsistencies in the standardization of the method and partly due to the lack of reliable correlations with well accepted metamorphic zones assemblages. In this study, 54 pelitic samples were analyzed from localities of defined mineral facies from the well-studied rocks of the South Island of New Zealand. Standardized Kübler and Árkai indices are presented for this sample suite using the widely applied standardized Crystallinity Index Scale (CIS) of measurement, and employing the new Frey-Kübler equivalent upper and lower boundary limits of the anchizone at 0.32 and 0.52°2θ. The results presented indicate that 76–78% of both Kübler index and Árkai index values correspond with the expected mineral facies when the epizone is taken to correspond to both the greenschist (chlorite-zone) and pumpellyite-actinolite facies, the anchizone to the prehnite-pumpellyite facies and the diagenetic zone to the zeolite facies. This good correspondence between Kübler and Árkai index values and metamorphic mineral zones confirms that clay “crystallinity” indices provide a useful method for mapping regional grades of low temperature metamorphism and the general state of cleavage development. Its effectiveness is, however, dependent on appropriate standardization to an internationally recognized scale of clay mineral “crystallinity” measurement, and implementation of true Kübler-equivalent anchizone boundary limits. The consistent variations between illite and chlorite “crystallinities” observed for the studied pelites of southern New Zealand, as defined on Kübler - Árkai index correlation plots, is suggested to reflect variations in the activities of K+, Fe2+ and Mg2+ in the metamorphic pore fluid.

Origin and geodynamic significance of the early Mesozoic Weiya LP and HT granulites from the Chinese Eastern Tianshan

The Chinese Tianshan in the southwestern part of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) is characterized by a variety of high-grade metamorphic rocks, which provide critical constraints for understanding the geodynamic evolution of the CAOB. In this paper, we present detailed petrological and zircon U–Pb geochronological studies of the Weiya low-pressure and high-temperature (LP-HT) granulites of the Chinese Eastern Tianshan. These granulites were previously considered to be a product of a regional metamorphic orogenic event. Due to different bulk-rock chemistries the Weiya granulites, which occur as lenses within the contact metamorphic aureole of the Weiya granitic ring complex, have a variety of felsic–pelitic and mafic granulites with different textural equilibrium mineral assemblages including garnet–cordierite–sillimanite-bearing granulites, cordierite–sillimanite-bearing granulites, cordierite–orthopyroxene-bearing granulites, and orthopyroxene–clinopyroxene-bearing granulites. Average P–T thermobarometric calculations and conventional geothermobarometry indicates that the Weiya granulites underwent early prograde metamorphism under conditions of 600–650°C at 3.2–4.2kbar and peak metamorphism of 750–840°C at 2.9–6.3kbar, indicating a rather high geothermal gradient of ca. 60°C/km. Zircon U–Pb LA–ICP–MS dating revealed metamorphic ages between 244±1 to 237±3Ma, which are in accordance with the crystallization age of the Weiya granitic ring complex. We suggest that the formation of the Weiya granulites was related to contemporaneous granitic magmatism instead of a regional metamorphic orogenic event. In addition, a Late Devonian metamorphic age of ca. 380Ma was recorded in zircon mantle domains from two pelitic samples which is consistent with the metamorphic age of the Xingxingxia metamorphic complex in the Chinese Eastern Tianshan. This suggests that the mantle domains of the zircon grains of the Weiya granulites probably formed during the Late Devonian regional metamorphism and were overprinted by the Early Triassic contact metamorphism. Therefore, Early Triassic geodynamic models for the southwestern part of the CAOB, which are based on a previously suggested regional metamorphic orogenic event of the Weiya granulites, need to be viewed with caution.

Late‐stage orogenic loading revealed by contact metamorphism in the northern Appalachians, New York

AbstractPelitic schists from contact aureoles surrounding mafic–ultramafic plutons in Westchester County, NY record a high‐P (~0.8 GPa) high‐T (~790 °C) contact overprint on a Taconic regional metamorphic assemblage (~0.5 GPa). The contact metamorphic assemblage of a pelitic sample in the innermost aureole of the Croton Falls pluton, a small (&lt;10 km2) gabbroic body, consists of quartz–plagioclase–biotite–garnet–sillimanite–ilmenite–graphite–Zn‐rich Al‐spinel. Both K‐feldspar and muscovite are absent, and abundant biotite, plagioclase, sillimanite, quartz and ilmenite inclusions are found within subhedral garnet crystals. Unusually low bulk‐rock Na and K contents imply depletion of alkalic components and silica through anatexis and melt extraction during contact heating relative to typical metapelites outside the aureole. Thermobarometry on nearby samples lacking a contact overprint yields 620–640 °C and 0.5–0.6 GPa. In the aureole sample, WDS X‐ray chemical maps show distinct Ca‐enriched rims on both garnet and matrix plagioclase. Furthermore, biotite inclusions within garnet have significantly higher Mg concentration than matrix biotite. Thermobarometry using GASP and garnet–biotite Mg–Fe exchange equilibria on inclusions and adjacent garnet host interior to the high‐Ca rim zone yield ~0.5 ± 0.1 GPa and ~620 ± 50 °C. Pairs in the modified garnet rim zone yield ~0.9 ± 0.1 GPa and ~790 ± 50 °C. Thermocalc average P–T calculations yield similar results for core (~0.5 ± ~0.1 GPa, ~640 ± ~80 °C) and rim (~0.9 ± ~0.1 GPa, ~800 ± ~90 °C) equilibria. The core assemblages are interpreted to record the P–T conditions of peak metamorphism during the Taconic regional event whereas the rim compositions and matrix assemblages are interpreted to record the P–T conditions during the contact event. The high pressures deduced for this later event are interpreted to reflect loading due to the emplacement of Taconic allochthons in the northern Appalachians during the waning stages of regional metamorphism (after c. 465 Ma) and before contact metamorphism (c. 435 Ma). In the absence of contact metamorphism‐induced recrystallization, it is likely that this regional‐scale loading would remain cryptic or unrecorded.

Short-wavelength infrared spectroscopy of chlorite can be used to determine very low metamorphic grades

This study investigates the use of short-wavelength infrared reflectance spectroscopy for measuring chlorite physicochemical information of value for determination of very low metamorphic grades. The method is termed chlorite spectral index (CSI) and assessed through quantitative comparison with XRD-derived Arkai and Kubler indices (AI and KI, respectively) in a set of 41 pelitic samples. The four CSI measures investigated measure the depth (D) of the absorption features at 1900, 2250 and/or 2350 nm, and are defined as reflectance 2250D/1900D index (CSI(H 2 O)), reflectance (2350D + 2250D × 1.7)/1900D index (CSI(H 2 O) sum ), reflectance 2250D index (CSI(2250)) and reflectance 2350D + 2250D × 1.7 index (CSI sum ). The results demonstrate the applicability of the method: all CSI measures show a good correlation with the AI, and respective correlation factors range between R 2 = 0.840 (for the CSI(H 2 O)) and R 2 = 0.616 (for the CSI sum ). The CSI measures also show a good correlation with the KI with R 2 = 0.704 (for CSI sum ) to 0.769 (CSI(2250)). By applying the correlation equations to define the metamorphic zone boundaries for each of the CSI measures, 64.3–78.6 % of the samples match the metamorphic grade indicated by AI for the epizone, 47.1–70.6 % for the anchizone and 70–80 % for the diagenetic zone. All CSI measures show a good reproducibility, with an intra sample variance ranging between 2.31 % CSI(H 2 O) sum and 3.34 % (CSI(2250)). CSI is not restricted to pelitic rocks and marls, but can also be applied in very low-grade metabasites. In addition to the existing laboratory method, CSI has application potential in remote sensing applications.

Anatectic melt volumes in the thermal aureole of the Etive Complex, Scotland: the roles of fluid‐present and fluid‐absent melting

AbstractPelitic hornfelses within the inner thermal aureole of the Etive igneous complex underwent limited partial melting, generating agmatic micro‐stromatic migmatites. In this study, observed volume proportions of vein leucosomes in the migmatites are compared with modelled melt volumes in an attempt to constrain the controls on melting processes. Petrogenetic modelling in the MnNCKFMASHT system was performed on the compositions of 15 analysed Etive pelite samples using THERMOCALC. Melt modes were calculated at 2.2 kbar (the estimated pressure in the southern Etive aureole) from solidus temperatures to 800 °C for both fluid‐absent and fluid‐present conditions. Volume changes accompanying fluid‐absent melting at 2.2 kbar were also calculated. P–T pseudosections reproduce the zonal sequence of the southern Etive aureole fairly well. The modelled solidus temperatures of silica‐rich pelitic compositions are close to 680 °C at 2.2 kbar and, in the absence of free fluid, melt modes in such compositions rise to between 12 and 29% at 800 °C, half of which is typically produced over the narrow reaction interval in which orthopyroxene first appears. Silica‐poor compositions have solidus temperatures of up to ∼770 °C and yield &lt;11.4% melt at 800 °C under fluid‐absent conditions. For conditions of excess H2O, modelled melt modes increase dramatically within ∼13 °C of the solidus, in some cases to &gt;60%; by 800 °C they range from 61 to 88% and from 29 to 74% in silica‐rich and silica‐poor compositions, respectively. Calculated volume changes for fluid‐absent melting are positive for all modelled compositions and reach 4.5% in some silica‐rich compositions by 800 °C. Orthopyroxene formation is accompanied by a volume increase of up to 1.48% over a temperature increase of as little as 2.7 °C, supporting the arguments for melt‐induced ‘hydrofracturing’ as a viable melt‐escape mechanism in low‐P metamorphism. Mineral assemblages in the innermost aureole support previous conclusions that partial melting took place predominantly under fluid‐absent conditions. However, vein leucosome proportions, estimated by image analysis, do not show the expected correlation with grade, and are locally greatly in excess of melt modes predicted by fluid‐absent models, particularly close to the melt‐in isograd. Melting of interlayered psammites, addition of H2O from interlayered melt‐free rocks, and metastable persistence of muscovite are ruled out as major causes of the excess melt anomaly. The most likely cause, we believe, is that local variations existed in the amount of fluid available at the onset of melting, promoted by focussing of fluid released by dehydration in the middle and outer aureole; however, some redistribution of melt by compaction‐driven flow through the vein channel network cannot be ruled out. The formation of melt‐filled fractures in the inner Etive aureole was assisted by stresses that caused extension at high angles to the igneous contact. The fractures were probably caused either by transient pressure reduction in the diorite magma chamber associated with a second phase of intrusion, or by sub‐solidus thermal contraction in the diorite pluton during the early stages of inner‐aureole cooling.

Geochemistry of low-grade clastic rocks in the Acatlán Complex of southern Mexico: Evidence for local provenance in felsic–intermediate igneous rocks

Geochemical data of sedimentary basins have been used to determine their plate tectonic setting. Here we test geochemical data for paired psammite–pelite samples from two greywacke packages that underlie 60% of the Paleozoic Acatlán Complex of southern Mexico: one an Ordovician rift-passive margin suite and the other a Carboniferous active margin suite. Both units consist of low-grade, polydeformed psammites and pelites associated with rare tholeiitic flows and dikes. Analyses of paired psammite–pelite samples from a number of different units in the eastern part of the Acatlán Complex indicate that they all have a similar geochemistry with their major components dependent on the proportion of sand and clay. The chemical index of alteration yielded values between 55 and 70 recording a moderate degree of weathering of plagioclase to illite/kaolinite in the source area. The REE patterns suggest provenance in felsic–intermediate igneous rocks, and the wide range of TiO 2–Zr ratios indicates that this was followed by extensive sorting. The mantle-normalized trace element patterns of the psammites generally display positive Zr and Hf anomalies reflecting elevated concentration of zircon in these rocks. Detrital zircon ages from some of these units show that the major source for these clastic rocks probably lay in the adjacent Mesoproterozoic Oaxacan Complex and in the Neoproterozoic basement underlying the Acatlán Complex and/or the Yucatan Peninsula. Geological parameters point to a rift-passive margin setting for the Ordovician rocks and an active, subduction-related margin for the Carboniferous units. However, the commonly used tectonic discrimination, bi- to tri-variant diagrams cannot readily distinguish between the two suites on geochemical grounds. Their geochemistry probably reflects the general felsic–intermediate compositions of the rocks in the Precambrian source regions, rather than the contemporaneous tectonic setting. Future work involving a more advanced statistical approach (e.g. multivariant methods, multidimensional scaling and classification trees) may yield more refined results, particularly in combination with detrital zircon geochronology.

Nitrogen and N-isotope variation during low-grade metamorphism of the Taiwan mountain belt

To investigate factors affecting the evolution of nitrogen system in rocks during progressive metamorphism, unmetamorphosed to greenschist-facies pelitic samples were collected from both pelitic and (pelitic members of) psammitic rock sequences along two transects of the Taiwan mountain belt. Among all samples, greenschist-facies metapelites from the Tananao metamorphic basement of this mountain belt exhibit the most variable and depleted nitrogen content and δ15N values. The observations are difficult to interpret and can only be accounted for by complicated tectonic/metamorphic history of the basement complex. On the other hand, irrespective of the different metamorphic grades, samples from the metamorphosed cover strata, which have been subjected to only one stage of metamorphism, show comparable nitrogen and N-isotope composition. The only exception is that greenschist-facies metapelites from the pelitic members of psammitic rock sequence (i.e., the G(Ps) group samples) of the cover strata are enriched in the 15N isotope by at least 1‰. Taking Al content as a normalizing factor, averaged N/Al and LOI/Al show systematic decrease through progressive metamorphism. Given the non-homogeneous nature of the sedimentary protoliths, the comparable N-isotope composition among the unmetamorphosed to zeolite-facies (i.e., S-Z) group, prehnite-pumpellyite-facies (i.e., PP) group and greenschist-facies (i.e., G) group samples from pelitic rock sequences can be explained by rock devolatilization with limited nitrogen depletion (<10%). High δ15N composition of the G(Ps) group samples might be mainly due to more extensive nitrogen depletion (∼25%). It is suggested that during metamorphism, the pelitic rock sequence may approximate a closed system, while thick psammitic rock sequence may behave more like an open system, facilitating nitrogen depletion and N-isotope fractionation even for thin pelitic members within a thick psammitic sequence. Lithology, in addition to other factors, therefore plays a role in controlling the evolution of the nitrogen system during low-grade metamorphism. The present study implies that element transport by dehydration fluid in subduction zones may largely take place along fluid channel ways.

A thin-section scale original inhomogeneity of bulk rock chemistry inferred from compositional zoning of garnet in the Sambagawa metamorphic rocks, central Shikoku, Japan

The EPMA analysis of a pelitic sample from the Besshi district, central Shikoku, in the Sambagawa metamorphic belt reveals that two types of garnet porphyroblasts with different sizes and chemical compositions are present within a single thin section. One type consisting of medium-sized (d ∼ < 1 mm) grains has a high Mn content at the core and shows a pyrope-rich profile. The other type is comparatively larger in size (d ∼ 2 mm). The rim compositions of both types are different. The influence of the initial bulk rock chemistry on the garnet is calculated by the forward model. A comparison of the observations with the calculated results indicates that the difference between the two types of garnet grains is attributed to the initial Fe/Mg ratio of the local bulk rocks.

Crystal-size distributions of garnets in metapelites from the northeastern Bushveld contact aureole, South Africa

Crystal size distributions (CSDs) provide information about the nucleation and growth conditions of crystals. In the present study, we investigated CSDs of garnets in metapelites in the Bushveld contact aureole to examine the mechanisms of garnet nucleation and growth and to deduce controlling factors of CSDs. The CSD shapes were evaluated in terms of the Law of Proportionate Effects crystal growth and of the thermally accelerated, diffusion-controlled nucleation and growth. We adopted both the non-parametric and parametric stereological methods to estimate three-dimensional crystal size distributions from two-dimensional measurements of crystal diameters. The studied garnets showed various CSD shapes: asymptotic, lognormal, and near-symmetric distributions. These varieties of CSDs are generally controlled by heating rate, metamorphic temperature, and duration of thermal effects due to the intrusion of the igneous body, the Rustenburg Layered Suites. The chemical composition of the host sedimentary rocks is an additional important factor in controlling CSD shapes: it affects garnet growth as a supply source of nutrients for the mineral. At the contact between the Rustenburg igneous rocks and the aureole, where a rapid increase of temperature and a migmatitic extraction of siliceous melts occurred, the CSD is asymptotic showing constant- or accelerating-nucleation rates. In contrast, at some distance from the igneous contact where a relatively slower rise of temperature occurred and lognormal to near symmetric CSDs were mainly generated, suggesting decaying-rate nucleation dominated. However, even in such thermal conditions, differences in chemical compositions of host rocks affected growth mechanisms of garnet porphyroblasts, which resulted in relatively symmetric and pseudo-lognormal CSDs of garnets in biotite- and quartz-rich layers, respectively, in a pelitic sample.

Rb–Sr systematics of Holocene pelitic sediments and their bearing on whole-rock dating

In many cases, when dealing with argillaceous fine-grained sedimentary rocks, the isotopic ages obtained from Rb–Sr whole-rock isochron calculations are of geological significance, despite the fact that the initial conditions of Sr isotopic homogenization are not fulfilled. To explain this, a mechanical mixing during deposition has been suggested, leading to an aggregate of mixed material with fairly uniform 87Sr/86Sr values, whatever Rb/Sr ratio is found in the analysed samples. This investigation of the behaviour of Rb and Sr during sedimentation and early diagenesis, involves study of more than 60 samples of fine-grained recent sediments from selected coastal localities of Brazil. The results indicate that pelitic samples from some recent to present-day transitional or shallow marine environments, such as the Jacarepaguá tidal flat and the Amazonas River mouth, where halmirolysis could have occurred, may produce nearly horizontal best-fit lines in a Rb–Sr isochron diagram. Moreover, the initial isotopic 87Sr/86Sr ratios appear to be well above 0.710. In open marine environments, such as the Campos Basin, where sampling was spread over more than 100 metres, exchanges between the argillaceous sediments and seawater potentially happen at low temperature, inducing a reduction of the 87Sr/86Sr isotopic composition of the sediments to nearly 0.710. An almost horizontal best-fit line is produced for the entire stratigraphic section, independent of the sedimentation age. We believe that in similar environments such ‘zero age isochrons’ are maintained for some time, testifying to exchanges between the sediment and the interstitial fluids, before the onset of burial diagenesis. The above described studies on fine-grained and recent argillaceous sediments seem to confirm the production of horizontal best-fit lines in isochron diagrams, justifying the application of the Rb–Sr whole-rock method to pelitic sedimentary rocks. The nature of the material is critical. The pelitic sediments to be analysed should contain only very limited amounts of coarse clastic material (especially feldspars and mica fragments) and consist mainly of fine clay minerals in which smectites, illite and mixed layers illite–smectite largely predominate.