Pegasus Toroidal Experiment Research Articles

H-mode plasmas at very low aspect ratio on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

H-mode is obtained at in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment via Ohmic heating, high-field-side fueling, and low edge recycling in both limited and diverted magnetic topologies. These H-mode plasmas show the formation of edge current and pressure pedestals and a doubling of the energy confinement time to . The L–H power threshold increases with density, and there is no minimum observed in the attainable density space. The power threshold is equivalent in limited and diverted plasmas, consistent with the FM3 model. However, the measured is higher than that predicted by conventional International Tokamak Physics Activity (ITPA) scalings, and increases as . Small ELMs are present at low input power , with toroidal mode number . At , they transition to large ELMs with intermediate . The dominant- component of a large ELM grows exponentially, while other components evolve nonlinearly and can damp prior to the crash. Direct measurements of the current profile in the pedestal region show that both ELM types exhibit a generation of a current-hole, followed by a pedestal recovery. Large ELMs are shown to further expel a current-carrying filament. Small ELM suppression via injection of low levels of helical current into the edge plasma region is also indicated.

A novel, cost-effective, multi-point Thomson scattering system on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment (invited).

A novel, cost-effective, multi-point Thomson scattering system has been designed, implemented, and operated on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment. Leveraging advances in Nd:YAG lasers, high-efficiency volume phase holographic transmission gratings, and increased quantum-efficiency Generation 3 image-intensified charge coupled device (ICCD) cameras, the system provides Thomson spectra at eight spatial locations for a single grating/camera pair. The on-board digitization of the ICCD camera enables easy modular expansion, evidenced by recent extension from 4 to 12 plasma/background spatial location pairs. Stray light is rejected using time-of-flight methods suited to gated ICCDs, and background light is blocked during detector readout by a fast shutter. This ∼103 reduction in background light enables further expansion to up to 24 spatial locations. The implementation now provides single-shot Te(R) for ne > 5 × 1018 m-3.

Erratum: "Multi-point, high-speed passive ion velocity distribution diagnostic on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment" [Rev. Sci. Instrum. 83, 10D516 (2012)

This article corrects an error in M.G. Burke et al., 'Multi-point, high-speed passive ion velocity distribution diagnostic on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment,' Rev. Sci. Instrum. 83, 10D516 (2012) pertaining to ion temperature. The conclusions of this paper are not altered by the revised ion temperature measurements.

Characterization of peeling modes in a low aspect ratio tokamak

Peeling modes are observed at the plasma edge in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment under conditions of high edge current density (Jedge ∼ 0.1 MA m−2) and low magnetic field (B ∼ 0.1 T) present at near-unity aspect ratio. Their macroscopic properties are measured using external Mirnov coil arrays, Langmuir probes and high-speed visible imaging. The modest edge parameters and short pulse lengths of Pegasus discharges permit direct measurement of the internal magnetic field structure with an insertable array of Hall-effect sensors, providing the current profile and its temporal evolution. Peeling modes generate coherent, edge-localized electromagnetic activity with low toroidal mode numbers n ⩽ 3 and high poloidal mode numbers, in agreement with theoretical expectations of a low-n external kink structure. Coherent MHD fluctuation amplitudes are found to be strongly dependent on the experimentally measured Jedge/B peeling instability drive, consistent with theory. Peeling modes nonlinearly generate ELM-like, field-aligned filamentary structures that detach from the edge and propagate radially outward. The KFIT equilibrium code is extended with an Akima spline profile parameterization and an improved model for induced toroidal wall current estimation to obtain a reconstruction during peeling activity with its current profile constrained by internal Hall measurements. It is used to test the analytic peeling stability criterion and numerically evaluate ideal MHD stability. Both approaches predict instability, in agreement with experiment, with the latter identifying an unstable external kink.

Simulated flux-rope evolution during non-inductive startup in Pegasus

Magnetic flux ropes produced during non-inductive startup of the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment (Eidietis et al 2007 J. Fusion Energy 26 43) are simulated with nonlinear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and two-fluid plasma models. A single injector is represented by a localized source-density for magnetic helicity and thermal energy. Results show development of a hollow tokamak-like profile from a sequence of co-helicity merging events that release flux-rope rings from the driven flux rope. Accumulation of poloidal flux over many events redirects the driven flux rope so that its path traces a toroidal surface. Evidence of a quasi-separatrix layer is found from analysis of the squashing-degree parameter during a ring formation event in an MHD simulation. The layer bifurcates twice, once between non-reconnecting passes and again between reconnecting passes of the driven flux rope. Chaotic scattering during ring formation is also apparent from the distribution of field-line lengths. Correlation of flow-velocity and magnetic-field fluctuations, an MHD dynamo-like effect, concentrates symmetric poloidal flux during ring formation.

Progress on Thomson scattering in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

A novel Thomson scattering system has been implemented onthe Pegasus Toroidal Experiment where typical densities of 1019 m−3 and electron temperatures of 10 to 500 eV are expected. The systemleverages technological advances in high-energy pulsed lasers, volume phaseholographic (VPH) diffraction gratings, and gated image intensified (ICCD)cameras to provide a relatively low-maintenance, economical, robustdiagnostic system. Scattering is induced by a frequency-doubled, Q-switchedNd:YAG laser (2 J at 532 nm, 7 ns FWHM pulse) directed to the plasma over a7.7 m long beam path, and focused to < 3 mm throughout the collectionregion. Inter-shot beam alignment is adjustable with less than a 0.01 mmspatial resolution in the collection region. A custom lens system collectsscattered photons at radii 15 cm to 85 cm from the machine's center, at ∼ F/6 with 14 mm radial resolution. The initial configuration providesscattering measurements at 12 spatial locations and 12 simultaneousbackground measurements at adjacent locations. If plasma backgroundsubtraction proves to be insignificant, these background channels will beused as viewing channels. Each spectrometer supports 8 spatial channels andcan provide 8 or more spectral bins each. The spectrometers usehigh-efficiency VPH transmission gratings (eff. > 80%) and fast-gatedICCDs (gate > 2 ns, Gen III intensifier) with high-throughput (F/1.8),achromatic lensing. A stray light mitigation facility has been implemented,consisting of a multi-aperture optical baffle system and a simple beam dump.Successful stray light reduction has enabled detection of scattered signal,and Rayleigh scattering has been used to provide a relative calibration.Initial temperature measurements have been made and data analysis algorithmsare under development.

Simulation of current-filament dynamics and relaxation in the Pegasus Spherical Tokamak

Nonlinear numerical computation is used to investigate the relaxation of non-axisymmetric current-channels from washer-gun plasma sources into “tokamak-like” plasmas in the Pegasus toroidal experiment [Eidietis et al. J. Fusion Energy 26, 43 (2007)]. Resistive MHD simulations with the NIMROD code [Sovinec et al. Phys. Plasmas 10(5), 1727–1732 (2003)] utilize ohmic heating, temperature-dependent resistivity, and anisotropic, temperature-dependent thermal conduction corrected for regions of low magnetization to reproduce critical transport effects. Adjacent passes of the simulated current-channel attract and generate strong reversed current sheets that suggest magnetic reconnection. With sufficient injected current, adjacent passes merge periodically, releasing axisymmetric current rings from the driven channel. The current rings have not been previously observed in helicity injection for spherical tokamaks, and as such, provide a new phenomenological understanding for filament relaxation in Pegasus. After large-scale poloidal-field reversal, a hollow current profile and significant poloidal flux amplification accumulate over many reconnection cycles.

A Thomson scattering diagnostic on the Pegasus Toroidal experiment

By exploiting advances in high-energy pulsed lasers, volume phase holographic diffraction gratings, and image intensified CCD cameras, a new Thomson scattering system has been designed to operate from 532 - 592 nm on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment. The system uses a frequency-doubled, Q-switched Nd:YAG laser operating with an energy of 2 J at 532 nm and a pulse duration of 7 ns FWHM. The beam path is < 7m, the beam diameter remains ≤ 3 mm throughout the plasma, and the beam dump and optical baffling is located in vacuum but can be removed for maintenance by closing a gate valve. A custom lens system collects scattered photons from 15 cm < R(maj) < 85 cm at ~F∕6 with 14 mm radial resolution. Initial measurements will be made at 12 spatial locations with 12 simultaneous background measurements at corresponding locations. The estimated signal at the machine-side collection optics is ~3.5 × 10(4) photons for plasma densities of 10(19) m(-3). Typical plasmas measured will range from densities of mid-10(18) to mid-10(19) m(-3) with electron temperatures from 10 to 1000 eV.

Multi-point, high-speed passive ion velocity distribution diagnostic on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

A passive ion temperature polychromator has been deployed on Pegasus to study power balance and non-thermal ion distributions that arise during point source helicity injection. Spectra are recorded from a 1 m F/8.6 Czerny-Turner polychromator whose output is recorded by an intensified high-speed camera. The use of high orders allows for a dispersion of 0.02 Å/mm in 4th order and a bandpass of 0.14 Å (~13 km/s) at 3131 Å in 4th order with 100 μm entrance slit. The instrument temperature of the spectrometer is 15 eV. Light from the output of an image intensifier in the spectrometer focal plane is coupled to a high-speed CMOS camera. The system can accommodate up to 20 spatial points recorded at 0.5 ms time resolution. During helicity injection, stochastic magnetic fields keep T(e) low (100 eV) and thus low ionization impurities penetrate to the core. Under these conditions, high core ion temperatures are measured (T(i) ≈ 1.2 keV, T(e) ≈ 0.1 keV) using spectral lines from carbon III, nitrogen III, and boron IV.

Full-wave modeling of the O–X mode conversion in the Pegasus toroidal experiment

The ordinary–extraordinary (O–X) mode conversion is modeled with the aid of a 2D full-wave code in the Pegasus toroidal experiment as a function of the launch angles. It is shown how the shape of the plasma density profile in front of the antenna can significantly influence the mode conversion efficiency and, thus, the generation of electron Bernstein waves (EBWs). It is therefore desirable to control the density profile in front of the antenna for successful operation of an EBW heating and current drive system. On the other hand, the conversion efficiency is shown to be resilient to vertical displacements of the plasma as large as ±10 cm.

Tokamak startup using outboard current injection on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

Localized current injection near the outboard midplane is used to form 0.1 MA plasma discharges with no induction supplied from a central solenoid in the ultra-low aspect ratio Pegasus Toroidal Experiment. The discharges are initiated by driving open-field-line currents that perturb the vacuum magnetic field such that the magnetic topology transitions to a tokamak-like configuration. The plasma is subsequently driven via helicity injection from the edge current sources and poloidal field induction. Intermittent n = 1 MHD activity is observed during periods of strong edge current drive and each event leads to a rapid inward expansion of the plasma volume and a drop in the plasma inductance. The plasmas are sufficiently turbulent such that the equilibrium approaches the lowest energy state described by Taylor relaxation theory. In agreement with that theory, the maximum Ip scales with (ITFIinj/w)1/2, where ITF is the toroidal field rod current, Iinj is the injected edge current and w is the radial width of the average poloidal magnetic flux in the driven open flux region.

A Hall sensor array for internal current profile constraint

Measurements of the internal distribution of B in magnetically confined plasmas are required to obtain current profiles via equilibrium reconstruction with sufficient accuracy to challenge stability theory. A 16-channel linear array of InSb Hall effect sensors with 7.5 mm spatial resolution has been constructed to directly measure internal B(z)(R,t) for determination of J(ψ,t) associated with edge-localized peeling mode instabilities in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment. The diagnostic is mounted in an electrically isolated vacuum assembly which presents a slim, cylindrical profile (∼1 cm outside diameter) to the plasma using graphite as a low-Z plasma facing component. Absolute calibration of the sensors is determined via in situ cross-calibration against existing magnetic pickup coils. Present channel sensitivities are of order of 0.25 mT. Internal measurements with bandwidth of ≤25 kHz have been obtained without measurable plasma perturbation. They resolve n=1 internal magnetohydrodynamics and indicate systematic variation in J(ψ) under different stability conditions.

Tokamak Startup Using Point-Source dc Helicity Injection

Startup of a 0.1 MA tokamak plasma is demonstrated on the ultralow aspect ratio Pegasus Toroidal Experiment using three localized, high-current density sources mounted near the outboard midplane. The injected open field current relaxes via helicity-conserving magnetic turbulence into a tokamaklike magnetic topology where the maximum sustained plasma current is determined by helicity balance and the requirements for magnetic relaxation.

The Formation of a Tokamak-like Plasma in Initial Experiments Using an Outboard Plasma Gun Current Source

Solenoid-free tokamak startup via point-source DC helicity injection is demonstrated on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment using a high current density, low impurity plasma gun mounted near the outboard midplane. A threshold in the vacuum vertical magnetic field strength that allows the injected current filament to relax into a tokamak-like topology is observed. A simple 2-D model of the vacuum magnetic field suggests this threshold is the maximum field strength that allows a toroidally connected field null to form. Discharges with I p ≈ 17 kA are produced using less than 2 kA of injected current and no inductive drive. The tokamak-like discharges exhibit current decay times about five times longer than the injected current decay, expansion of the plasma into the vacuum region and a significant increase in the line-integrated density.

Equilibrium properties at very low aspect ratio in the Pegasus toroidal experiment

Equilibrium reconstructions of low-aspect ratio (A < 1.3) discharges in the Pegasus toroidal experiment have been performed. Magnetic diagnostics are used for equilibrium constraint and a filament code is used to estimate the significant currents flowing in the vacuum vessel walls. This technique is able to fit the global plasma parameters of plasma current and major radius to within 5%, internal inductance to within 10% and plasma pressure to within 15% as determined by Monte Carlo estimation of the uncertainties in the fit parameters. Determination of the equilibrium properties of the plasma allows an understanding of the dynamics of internal tearing modes and external ideal kink modes that limit plasma performance. Internal tearing modes were found to degrade plasma confinement when rational surfaces are located in regions of low magnetic shear early in the discharge when temperature is lower and resistivity is higher. This confinement degradation limits the maximum achievable plasma current and pressure. Disruptions with precursors growing with a time of ∼90 µs have been found to be consistent with ideal external kink modes with a hybrid growth time.

Attainment of High Normalized Current by Current Profile Manipulation in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

Large stable values of normalized current IN are achievable in spherical tori due to the large gradient of the toroidal field across the plasma. This allows access to high Troyon beta limits. Values of IN > 12 MA/m-T are expected to be stable to ideal MHD modes in the ultra-low-A Pegasus Toroidal Experiment. In previous experiments, the toroidal field utilization (Ip/Itf) was found to be limited roughly to unity by the onset of large-scale low-order tearing modes during the current ramp, which limited IN to roughly 6 MA/m-T. Three techniques have now been developed that allow access to higher values of IN, primarily through modification of the current density profile. The first of these techniques employs a fast rampdown of the low-inductance toroidal field coil to rapidly decrease Itf. The other techniques employ gas-fueled washer stack guns as plasma sources. The second technique uses these guns to provide preionization at low toroidal field, while the third relies on the guns as helicity sources to form ST plasmas non-inductively. Using these techniques, values of Ip/Itf > 2 have been obtained.

Non-inductive Production of ST Plasmas with Washer Gun Sources on the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

Formation of tokamak-like plasmas via electrostatic helicity injection in the ultra-low aspect ratio Pegasus Toroidal Experiment is reported. Two low-impurity, high-current (1 kA) washer gun current sources have been installed in the lower divertor region. These initially drive current along helical field lines produced by the applied toroidal and vertical fields. At sufficiently low values of externally applied vertical field, the poloidal field generated by the plasma is large enough to cause a poloidal flux reversal. In these cases the plasma relaxes into a tokamak-like configuration. Discharges with I ϕ≈ 30 kA are produced with less than 2 kA of injected current. These discharges exhibit features indicative of tokamak plasmas, including reversal of poloidal flux at the center column, strong vacuum field deformation, increased current decay times, increased core heating, and characteristic MHD modes common to other helicity-injection-driven toroidal devices.

Initial Experiments at High Normalized Current in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

Initial experiments in the Pegasus ST exhibited an operational limit of I p ∼ I tf at A ∼ 1.15. With new power supplies, discharge control has greatly increased. Equilibria and stability modeling of the high I p/I tf regime has produced stable equilibria with I p/I tf up to 2 while values of I p/I tf approaching 3 show a potential upper bound on stability. A new operating regime has been accessed in recent experiments with the addition of electrostatic plasma sources. Using the sources as a pre-ionization technique, I p/I tf values of 1.5 have been accessed at very low toroidal fields. Using the sources as a means for non-inductive startup, values of I p/I tf up to 2.3 are attained. The MHD activity in these discharges is characteristically different than ohmic discharges, suggesting the new current sources are modifying the current profile to allow stable discharge evolution at minimal toroidal field.

The upgraded Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

The Pegasus Toroidal Experiment was developed to explore the physics limits of plasma operation as the aspect ratio (A) approaches unity. Initial experiments on the device found that access to high normalized current and toroidal beta was limited by the presence of large-scale tearing modes. Major upgrades have been conducted of the facility to provide the control tools necessary to mitigate these resistive modes. The upgrades include new programmable power supplies, new poloidal field coils and increased, time-variable toroidal field. First ohmic operations with the upgraded system demonstrated position and current ramp-rate control, as well as improvement in ohmic flux consumption from 2.9 MA Wb−1 to 4.2 MA Wb−1. The upgraded experiment will be used to address three areas of physics interest. First, the kink and ballooning stability boundaries at low A and high normalized current will be investigated. Second, clean, high-current plasma sources will be studied as a helicity injection tool. Experiments with two such sources have produced toroidal currents three times greater than predicted by geometric field line following. Finally, the use of electron Bernstein waves to heat and drive current locally will be studied at the 1 MW level; initial modelling indicates that these experiments are feasible at a frequency of 2.45 GHz.

Performance and stability of near-unity aspect ratio plasmas in the Pegasus Toroidal Experiment

The Pegasus Toroidal Experiment [R. Fonck et al., Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 41, 1400 (1996)] is a spherical torus designed to study the limits of plasma behavior as the aspect ratio A approaches unity. Access to near-unity A is achieved through the use of a novel high-stress reinforced solenoid magnet. High toroidal beta βt is obtained in ohmically-heated plasmas by operation at low field with densities up to the Greenwald limit. Values of βt up to 20% and normalized beta up to 5 have been obtained. The ratio of plasma current to toroidal field rod current, known as the toroidal field utilization, reaches values as large as 1 but appears to approach a “soft” boundary at that level related to both ohmic flux limitations and the onset of resistive magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) activity. The m/n=2/1 and 3/2 modes are most frequently observed, in agreement with the inferred safety factor profiles. Experiments are beginning to access the external kink stability boundary at edge safety factor q95=5, which is significantly higher than that observed in conventional tokamaks. Calculations using the DCON code [A. H. Glasser and M. S. Chance, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 42, 1848 (1997)] confirm instability to the ideal kink.