Peer Group Size Research Articles

The more peers are present, the more adventurous? How peer presence influences adolescent pedestrian safety

ObjectiveAdolescence is a high-risk period for traffic injury. One factor that may impact adolescent safety in traffic is the presence of peers. We conducted a quasi-experimental research study to examine the impact of peer presence, peer familiarity, and peer group size on adolescent pedestrian risk-taking intentions in both sidewalk and street-crossing settings. Methods607 students aged 12–18 years from Nantong city, China, completed a questionnaire that presented 20 traffic scenarios. The scenarios varied based on a 3 (peer group size: no peer vs. one peer vs. multiple peers) x 2 (peer familiarity: familiar vs. unfamiliar) x 2 (traffic setting: crossing the street vs. walking on the roadside) experimental design. Adolescents’ responses indicated safer vs riskier intentions in each situation. Results(1) Adolescents were safer when walking on the sidewalk than when crossing the street; (2) Whether crossing the street or walking on the sidewalk, adolescents’ behavioral intentions were safer when there were peers present than when there were no peers present; (3) Adolescents’ safety tended to be higher overall with unfamiliar peers than with familiar peers; (4) Adolescents were less safe when crossing the street with familiar peer(s) than with unfamiliar peer(s), but no differences emerged when walking on the sidewalk. ConclusionsAdolescents report safer behavior when walking with a peer or peers compared with walking alone. Familiar peers reduce adolescents’ safety of behavior intentions in traffic, especially when crossing the street.

Relationship between peer group size and active outdoor play in children aged 9–12 years

Relationship between peer group size and active outdoor play in children aged 9–12 years

Peer groups for organisational learning: Clustering with practical constraints.

Peer-grouping is used in many sectors for organisational learning, policy implementation, and benchmarking. Clustering provides a statistical, data-driven method for constructing meaningful peer groups, but peer groups must be compatible with business constraints such as size and stability considerations. Additionally, statistical peer groups are constructed from many different variables, and can be difficult to understand, especially for non-statistical audiences. We developed methodology to apply business constraints to clustering solutions and allow the decision-maker to choose the balance between statistical goodness-of-fit and conformity to business constraints. Several tools were utilised to identify complex distinguishing features in peer groups, and a number of visualisations are developed to explain high-dimensional clusters for non-statistical audiences. In a case study where peer group size was required to be small (≤ 100 members), we applied constrained clustering to a noisy high-dimensional data-set over two subsequent years, ensuring that the clusters were sufficiently stable between years. Our approach not only satisfied clustering constraints on the test data, but maintained an almost monotonic negative relationship between goodness-of-fit and stability between subsequent years. We demonstrated in the context of the case study how distinguishing features between clusters can be communicated clearly to different stakeholders with substantial and limited statistical knowledge.

Join the club? Peer effects on information value perception

AbstractWhile it is widely recognized that value perception increases when individuals engage in making physical objects, the impact of peer presence on value perception during production or consumption has not been studied. Peer production is prevalent for information products, which are the focus of the present study. Most research to date has focused on value as perceived by consumers, while consumers are increasingly involved in online processes of information production. Information, being intangible and experiential, is a unique type of good. This study places participants in the position of producing or consuming information in order to assess effects of peer group size on value perceptions. Six hundred and fifty one participants took part in 16 information consumption and production experiments. Consumers read information and producers created the same information. Consumers' willingness‐to‐pay and producers' willingness‐to‐accept payment were measured before or after peer consumption and production. Results indicate that value perception is highest when participants consume information individually, declining in small and medium‐sized groups and growing in mass consumption. Generally, post‐consumption values are higher. In production, point of measurement is cardinal. Before production, value perceived individually is lowest, however, having experienced peer production, individuals ascribe the highest value to self‐production. Value perceptions in massive groups converge.

The Supporting Role of Mentees' Peers in Online Mentoring: A Longitudinal Social Network Analysis of Peer Influence.

Studies show that online mentoring is an effective measure to support girls in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), especially if it also allows for networking with other participants on the mentoring platform. However, research is missing on peer influence. This topic seems especially crucial in programs for adolescents as peer influence plays an important role at this age. In our study, we investigated peer influence on mentoring outcomes – confidence in own STEM abilities and STEM-related activities – in an online mentoring program in STEM for secondary school girls (N = 124, M = 14.3 years, SD = 2.2 years, age range: 11–19 years). The program provides girls with at least 1 year of one-on-one interaction with a personal female mentor who has a college degree in a STEM subject. Participants can also interact with other participants on the platform. We used a longitudinal social network analysis approach to examine peer influence on mentoring outcomes. Our results indicate that both mentoring outcomes – mentees’ confidence in own STEM abilities and STEM-related activities – are influenced by peers moderated by the mentees’ own age. Younger mentees tended to become more similar to their peers regarding confidence in own STEM abilities and STEM-related activities, whereas older mentees tended to become more dissimilar over time. In addition, peer group size had a positive effect on confidence in own STEM abilities, but not on STEM-related activities. This effect was moderated by the mentee’s age. Overall, peers have a positive influence on the measured mentoring outcomes, especially for young mentees.

The role of peer effects in firms’ usage of R&D tax exemptions

Survey evidence suggests that firms are insufficiently aware of newly introduced R&D support measures due to the complexity of the public support landscape. As a result, adoption is slow and incomplete, which implies that eligible firms leave money on the table. We hypothesize that a key coping mechanism involves firms relying on their peers’ behaviour to inform their own adoption decision. We test this hypothesis by analysing firms' first use of a newly-introduced R&D tax exemption scheme in Belgium. We identify endogenous peer effects in industry- and location-based peer groups by exploiting the intransitivity in firms’ networks as well as variation in peer group size. The results show that firms’ decisions to use R&D tax exemptions are influenced by the choices of their peers, primarily in the time window immediately following their introduction. The findings suggest that the efficacy of R&D policy can be improved by accounting for the structure of firm networks in the communication of new support initiatives.

Does peer group size influence social preferences and risk taking?

AbstractThis paper examines whether the ex post relative payoffs of peers as well as the size of the peer group impact an agent's willingness to take risks. For example, persons in a flood plain may be less likely to purchase flood insurance if their neighbors also refrain from purchasing. We generalize the Fehr‐Schmidt (1999) model to allow the intensity of the social preferences to vary with the size of the peer group. Our experiment tests whether subjects are more or less likely to choose a lottery over a fixed payment when others have been assigned either the same lottery or the fixed payment. Using both between and within subject designs, we find risk‐taking behaviour is not responsive to the risks faced by others regardless of the size of peer group.

Perspective Paper / Perspektive: Peer teaching: From method to philosophy

Peer teaching or peer-assisted learning is a popular topic in the medical education literature. While not one method of education, a categorization is possible according to (a) the developmental distance between learner and peer teacher, (b) the scale or group size of learners in peer teaching arrangements and (c) the extent of formality or structure of the arrangement. That yields many different forms of peer teaching. Viewing peer teaching as a multifaceted method shows several benefits. On a deeper level however peer teaching may be viewed as a philosophy of medical education that has historical roots but aligns well with current thinking of teaching and learning across the continuum of medical education.

The Influence of Social Comparison and Peer Group Size on Risky Decision-Making.

This study explores the influence of different social reference points and different comparison group sizes on risky decision-making. Participants were presented with a scenario describing an exam, and presented with the opportunity of making a risky decision in the context of different information provided about the performance of their peers. We found that behavior was influenced, not only by comparison with peers, but also by the size of the comparison group. Specifically, the larger the reference group, the more polarized the behavior it prompted. In situations describing social loss, participants were led to make riskier decisions after comparing themselves against larger groups, while in situations describing social gain, they become more risk averse. These results indicate that decision making is influenced both by social comparison and the number of people making up the social reference group.

The effect of peer-group size on the delivery of feedback in basic life support refresher training: a cluster randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundStudents are largely providing feedback to one another when instructor facilitates peer feedback rather than teaching in group training. The number of students in a group affect the learning of students in the group training. We aimed to investigate whether a larger group size increases students’ test scores on a post-training test with peer feedback facilitated by instructor after video-guided basic life support (BLS) refresher training. Students’ one-rescuer adult BLS skills were assessed by a 2-min checklist-based test 1 year after the initial training.MethodsA cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of student number in a group on BLS refresher training. Participants included 115 final-year medical students undergoing their emergency medicine clerkship. The median number of students was 8 in the large groups and 4 in the standard group. The primary outcome was to examine group differences in post-training test scores after video-guided BLS training. Secondary outcomes included the feedback time, number of feedback topics, and results of end-of-training evaluation questionnaires.ResultsScores on the post-training test increased over three consecutive tests with instructor-led peer feedback, but not differ between large and standard groups. The feedback time was longer and number of feedback topics generated by students were higher in standard groups compared to large groups on the first and second tests. The end-of-training questionnaire revealed that the students in large groups preferred the smaller group size compared to their actual group size.ConclusionsIn this BLS refresher training, the instructor-led group feedback increased the test score after tutorial video-guided BLS learning, irrespective of the group size. A smaller group size allowed more participations in peer feedback.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12909-016-0682-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Relationship between eating behaviors and physical activity of preschoolers and their peers: a systematic review.

ObjectivesChildren learn by observing and imitating others, meaning that their eating behaviors and physical activity may be influenced by their peers. This paper systematically reviews how preschoolers’ eating behaviors and physical activity relate to their peers’ behaviors, and discusses avenues for future research.MethodsSix databases were searched for quantitative, peer-reviewed studies published up to July 2015 reporting on the correlates, predictors or effectiveness of peers on eating behaviors and physical activity in preschoolers. Risk of bias was independently assessed by two evaluators using the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies.ResultsThirteen articles were included: six measured physical activity, and seven assessed eating behaviors. Four of the six physical activity studies reported that children were more active when peers were present, while large peer group size was negatively associated with physical activity in two cross-sectional studies. All nutrition interventions reported that children’s eating behaviors may be influenced by their peers.ConclusionsAlthough supported by weak evidence, peers appear to influence children’s eating behaviors and physical activity. However, this influence may be moderated by the number of peers, gender, age and the perceived status of the role models. Future obesity prevention interventions should consider involving peers as agents for positive eating behaviors and physical activity in preschoolers.

Fast averaging peer group filter for the impulsive noise removal in color images

In the paper, a new approach to the impulsive noise removal in color images is presented. The new filtering design is based on the peer group concept, which determines the membership of a central pixel of the filtering window to its local neighborhood, in terms of the number of close pixels. Two pixels are declared as close if their distance in a given color space does not exceed a predefined threshold value. A pixel is treated as not corrupted by the impulsive noise process, if its peer group consists of at least two close pixels, otherwise this pixel is replaced by a weighted average of uncorrupted samples from the local neighborhood. The peer group size assigned to each pixel is used for the averaging operation, so that pixels which have many peers are taken with higher weight. The new filtering design proved to restore efficiently color images corrupted by even strong impulsive noise, while preserving tiny image details. The beneficial property of the proposed filter is its very low computational complexity, which allows its application in real-time image processing tasks.

Physical activity in childcare settings: The role of the environment

Promoting physical activity in pre-school children is essential to establish an active lifestyle and prevent overweight throughout life. Young children are spending increasingly more time in childcare, which is associated with an increased overweight risk [1] . The purpose of the current presentation is to provide an overview of various studies on pre-schoolers’ physical activity in the childcare setting, and the role of the childcare environment. Qualitative techniques (interviews and focus groups) were used to examine parents’ and childcare workers’ view of physical activity at childcare [2] , [3] . In addition, observations were used to examine physical activity levels in the childcare setting, as well as its correlates [4] , [5] , [6] , [7] . Furthermore, a questionnaire was developed to measure childcare workers’ physical activity-related practices, by translating the Preschool Physical Activity Parenting Practices (PPAPP) instrument [8] to the childcare setting, because such an instrument was lacking. Childcare workers [2] and parents [3] perceived various barriers to promoting physical activity in childcare, mostly pointing the finger towards each other. Childcare workers perceived children to be sufficiently active on their own, and identified the parents rather than themselves as responsible for promoting children's PA. They indicated lack of facilities and time; rules and policies regarding safety and daily duties; non-cooperative colleagues; a large range of ages of children; poor weather; unsuitable clothing and lack of communication with parents as main barriers to physical activity at childcare [2] . Although parents received little information about their child's physical activity at childcare, they were satisfied with the information they received from childcare centres concerning this topic because they perceived their child to be sufficiently active [3] . By contrast, the quantitative studies showed that preschoolers were sedentary for substantial parts of their day at childcare. Physical activity facilities (e.g. play equipment), childcare workers’ and peers’ presence and prompts, season, location (indoor vs. outdoor) and individual characteristics of each child (e.g. age, gender) were significantly related to the pre-schoolers’ physical activity levels [4] , [5] , [6] , [7] . With regard to specific activity opportunities, riding toys and a small playing area were associated with lower indoor physical activity levels. Outdoor physical activity levels were positively associated with the availability of for instance portable jumping equipment and the presence of a structured track on the playground. Slides, swings and sandboxes were negatively associated with outdoor activity levels [4] . Several environmental factors interacted with each other in explaining pre-schoolers’ physical activity levels. The influence of the physical environment (activity opportunities) was moderated by the social environment (peer group size), while the social environment (peer prompting, peer group size and staff group size) in turn interacted with child characteristics (gender and age) in determining activity intensity levels [5] . The implications of the findings will be discussed. Interventions and policies targeted specifically at physical activity in childcare are urgently needed, in order to promote a healthy, active lifestyle throughout life. Interventions should focus on increasing physical activity opportunities, enhancing children's outdoor time, and encouragement by teachers [4] , [5] , [6] , [7] . However, as shown, not all physical activity facilities at childcare are indeed positively associated with children's physical activity levels [4] . Furthermore, parents and childcare workers could improve their communication regarding children's physical activity and should be made aware of the high level of sedentary behavior at childcare [2] , [3] . Childcare centres could review their internal policies and provide extra training for childcare workers on how to promote children's physical activity [2] . A theoretical framework is proposed for future studies, based on the ecological view of environmental influences on human behavior [8] , [9] . This ecological view presumes that influences of the childcare environment interact with each other in determining children's’ physical activity. The ecological view is operationalized into three types of interaction: (1) interaction between childcare environment and child characteristics; (2) interaction between types of childcare environment (physical, social, political, economic); and (3) interaction between micro-systems (the childcare and home environment) in meso-systems. The validity of each of these hypotheses is discussed based on a literature review. The adoption of this framework has various implications for both research and practice in the area of physical activity in the childcare setting, which will be discussed [9] .

Agglomeration economies in classical music

AbstractThis study investigates agglomeration effects for classical music production in a wide range of cities for a global sample of composers born between 1750 and 1899. Theory suggests a trade‐off between agglomeration economies (peer effects) and diseconomies (peer crowding). I test this hypothesis using historical data on composers and employ a unique instrumental variable – a measure of birth centrality, calculated as the average distance between a composer's birthplace and the birthplace of his peers. I find a strong causal impact of peer group size on the number of important compositions written in a given year. Consistent with theory, the productivity gain eventually decreases and is characterized by an inverted U‐shaped relationship. These results are robust to a large series of tests, including checks for quality of peers, city characteristics, various measures of composers' productivity, and across different estimations in which also time‐varying birth centrality measures are used as instrumental variables.

Agglomeration Economies in Classical Music

This study investigates agglomeration effects for classical music production in a wide range of cities for a global sample of composers born between 1750 and 1899. Theory suggests a trade-off between agglomeration economies (peer effects) and diseconomies (peer crowding). I test this hypothesis using historical data on composers and employ a unique instrumental variable – a measure of birth centrality, calculated as the average distance between a composer’s birthplace and the birthplace of his peers. I find a strong causal impact of peer group size on the number of important compositions written in a given year. Consistent with theory, the productivity gain eventually decreases and is characterized by an inverted U-shaped relationship. These results are robust to a large series of tests, including checks for quality of peers, city characteristics, various measures of composers’ productivity, and across different estimations in which also time-varying birth centrality measures are used as instrumental variables.

Classroom dimensions predict early peer interaction when children are diverse in ethnicity, race, and home language

Abstract The purpose of this study was to test a model for predicting preschool-age children's behaviors with peers from dimensions of the classroom and teacher–child relationship quality when the children were from diverse race, ethnic, and home language backgrounds. Eight hundred children, (M = age 63 months, SD = 8.1 months), part of the National Evaluation of Early Head Start, participated in this study just prior to entering kindergarten. We observed children with peers in their classrooms and rated classroom peer group size, affective climate for peer interaction, teacher management of the classroom, and materials for dramatic play. Teachers reported on teacher–child relationship quality. Children from Spanish-speaking homes played similarly in classrooms where Spanish was and was not spoken. After control variables and receptive vocabulary scores were entered into the model, classroom dimensions and teacher–child relationship quality significantly predicted pretend play, anxious-withdrawn, aggressive, and victim of peer aggression behaviors with peers. Children engaged in more pretend play and received lower ratings of being the victim of peer aggression when classroom groups were smaller. When teachers perceived teacher–child relationships as lower in conflict and higher in closeness, children's anxious-withdrawn, aggressive, and victim of aggression ratings were lower. Children's ratings of being the victim of peer aggression were higher when ratings of classroom positive peer climate were lower. Child–teacher ethnic or racial match did not moderate these predictions.

Interaction between physical environment, social environment, and child characteristics in determining physical activity at child care.

To investigate the association between the child-care environment and physical activity of 2- and 3-year-olds. Based on an ecological view of environmental influences on health behavior, we hypothesized that the social and physical environment, as well as child characteristics (age and gender), would show independent and interactive effects on children's physical activity intensity. Observations of physical activity intensity were performed among children (N = 175) at 9 Dutch child-care centers. Aspects of the child-care environment were assessed using the validated Environment and Policy Assessment and Observation (EPAO) Instrument. Multilevel linear regression analyses examined the association of environment and child characteristics with children's activity intensity. Moderation was tested by including interaction terms in the analyses, with subsequent post hoc analyses for significant interaction terms. Observed child physical activity intensity, measured with the Observational System for Recording Physical Activity in Children-Preschool Version. A large proportion of the observed activities were classified as sedentary, while far fewer observations were classified as moderate or vigorous. Activity opportunities in the physical environment (assessed using EPAO) and prompts by staff and peers were significantly and positively related to physical activity intensity, while group size was negatively related to activity intensity. The influence of the physical environment was moderated by social environment (peer group size), while the social environment in turn interacted with child characteristics (age and gender) in determining activity intensity. Our findings are in line with the ecological perspective regarding environmental influences on behavior, and stress the importance of incorporating the child-care environment in efforts to prevent childhood overweight and obesity.

Inequalities in Croatian pupils' unhealthy behaviours and health outcomes: role of school, peers and family affluence

To examine the influence of family affluence (measure of socioeconomic status), school environment (liking school, school pressure, academic achievement and classmates support) and peer group (size of the peer group and frequency of peer contact) on unhealthy behaviours (smoking, drunkenness, physical inactivity, irregular breakfast and soft drink consumption) and health outcomes (self-rated health, multiple health complaints and life satisfaction) in Croatian pupils. The Croatian data from Health Behaviour in School-aged Children 2005/06 (HBSC) were used (1666 11-year-olds, and 1630 15-year-olds). Binary logistic regression analysis was conducted (95% confidence intervals, P < 0.05 and P < 0.01). School environment and peer group were connected to more unhealthy behaviours along with greater differences in those behaviours than family affluence. The only exception was physical inactivity at age 11 (compared to high family affluence, low family affluence increased 80% odds for physical inactivity, whereas, compared to favourable school environment, poor school environment increased 50% odds). Compared to favourable school environment, poor school environment was the most consistent and strongest predictor of poor health outcomes (all three measures). No influence of peer group to health outcomes was found. Compared to high-affluent families, low-affluent families were associated to higher odds for poor self-rated health and life dissatisfaction, and, for 11-year-olds, medium-affluent families to lower odds for multiple health complaints. Gender differences in unhealthy behaviours and health outcomes were also found. Compared to socioeconomic inequalities, greater inequalities in unhealthy behaviours were connected to school environment and peer group, and in health outcomes to school environment.

Husbands' Influence on Wives' Drinking: Testing a Relationship Motivation Model in the Early Years of Marriage.

Previous research indicates that husbands' drinking before marriage is predictive of wives' drinking after marriage. A relationship motivation model was tested in which this influence was moderated by wives' dependence, relationship satisfaction, peer group size, and the belief that alcohol positively impacts relationships. Newlyweds were assessed at the time of marriage and were reassessed at their 1st and 2nd anniversaries. Results supported a relationship motivation model. Husband-to-wife drinking influence was moderated by wives' interpersonal dependence, number of peers, and positive relationship alcohol expectancies. The direction of the spousal influence changed in the 2nd year of marriage, with wives' drinking over the 1st year predicting husbands' drinking in the 2nd. Implications with respect to marriage and the drinking partnership are discussed.

Location and Configuration Management in Mobile-Switch ATM Networks

The features of two important application scenarios, supporting mobile switches with fixed end users and mobile switches with mobile users, are dramatically different from those of the traditional wired network structure. To exploit mobile switches, the location and configuration management of mobile switches is essential to handle the mobility and topology change of the wireless/mobile ATM network. In this paper we address the location management and configuration problems of mobile switches in an ATM network. We investigate several aspects of the location management problem including architecture to support switch mobility, mobile switch tracking, and mobile switch locating. We propose an approach that is based on the Private Network-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol. We extend the PNNI protocol to enable it to handle mobile switches. Moreover, we develop analytical models to determine the tracking and locating costs for mobile switches under the proposed scheme. The models illustrate the relation between total cost (tracking cost + locating cost) and peer group size. The models can be used to derive the optimal configuration for an ATM network with mobile switches.