Peer Abuse Research Articles

Susceptibility or resilience to childhood peer abuse can be explained by cortical thickness in brain regions involved in emotional regulation

Experiencing peer abuse in childhood can damage mental health, but some people exhibit resilience against these negative outcomes. However, it remains uncertain which specific changes in brain structures are associated with this type of resilience. We categorized 217 participants into three groups: resilience group, susceptibility group, and healthy control group, based on their experiences of peer abuse and mental health problems. They underwent MRI scans to measure cortical thickness in various brain regions of the prefrontal cortex. We employed covariance analysis to compare cortical thickness among these groups. Individuals who resilient to anxiety exhibited smaller cortical thickness in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and with larger thickness in the right medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC), while those resilient to stress was associated with smaller thickness in both the bilateral IFG and bilateral middle frontal gyrus (MFG). These findings deepen our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying resilience and offer insight into improving individual resilience.

Preventing harmful sexual behaviours in children and young people: evaluating the role of primary education

ABSTRACT This paper explores the issue of harmful sexual behaviour (HSB) presented by young people, advocating a preventative approach through an increased focus on primary education. The definition of HSB, contributing factors and recent prevalence among young people is discussed. Much of the research and policies explored relate directly to England and the UK, however the advocated approaches and conclusions have an international relevance. The paper establishes the damaging impacts of HSB on young people and teachers, demonstrating the serious need for action across the education system. A preventative approach advocating the important role of primary education in reducing HSB and peer on peer abuse is presented, exploring three key areas: education, pastoral support and staff support. Policies and practices comprising such an approach are critiqued, and their relevance to primary education established. The need for future research into the needs of primary education and the prevalence of HSB in pre-secondary education is identified.

Patterns of adverse childhood experiences and associations with lower mental well-being among university students

BackgroundUniversity students report high levels of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), which can lead to severe mental health problems. Understanding how ACEs impact well-being in this population is essential, yet research to date is limited. ObjectiveTo explore ACE patterns and their association with lower well-being in university students. Participants and setting1023 Spanish students (71.6 % female) aged between 18 and 64 years old (M = 20.10, SD = 3.93) completed a self-report questionnaire. MethodsThis study used a cross-sectional design. The ACE International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ) and the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale were used to assess, respectively, childhood adversities and mental well-being. Latent Class Analysis and regression modeling were conducted to analyze the link between ACEs and lower mental well-being, considering the covariates of age, country of origin, sexual orientation, and mental illness. ResultsFour ACE classes were identified: Low ACEs (49.5 %), Dysfunctional Household (12.3 %), Household and Peer Abuse (31.0 %), and High ACEs (7.2 %). The regression analysis (F(3, 1007) = 19.2, p < .001, R2adj = 0.054) successfully predicted well-being scores based on ACE classes. When compared with the Low ACE class, all other classes exhibited lower levels of well-being. Age, sexual orientation, and mental illness were also related to lower well-being, with mental illness having the strongest negative effect (β = −0.635, t(1015) = −6.49, p < .001). ConclusionsThese findings underscore the relationship between childhood adversity and mental health, offering insights for future prevention efforts and enriching our understanding of ACEs and their impact on well-being.

Higher Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences in Transgender Than in Cisgender Individuals: Results from a Single-Center Observational Study.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) have been shown to have a tremendous negative impact on health outcomes later in life. This study presents data on the prevalence of ACEs, psychological distress, and trauma-related symptoms in transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) people compared to cisgender people. TGD adults (n = 35) and a matched sample of nonpsychiatric hospital patients (n = 35) were surveyed between September 2018 and March 2019. Participants completed the Maltreatment and Abuse Chronology of Exposure Scale to assess ACEs, as well as the Brief Symptom Inventory and the Essener Trauma Inventory to assess psychological distress and trauma-related symptoms. TGD patients reported a higher number of ACEs than cisgender patients (0.7 vs. 2.4; p < 0.001; d = 0.94). A total of 28.6% of TGD vs. 5.7% cisgender patients reported four or more ACEs (p < 0.001). The most common forms of ACEs were parental abuse (54.3%) and peer abuse (54.3%). No significantly increased prevalence of sexual abuse was found (p > 0.05). TGD patients also reported a higher prevalence of depression (48.4% vs. 5.7%, p < 0.001), posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (59.4% vs. 13.8%, p < 0.001), and anxiety (58.1% vs. 28.6%, p = 0.016). Health care providers should be aware of and assess ACEs, especially in vulnerable groups such as TGD people, and create a safe place through open-minded, affirming care.

Social Participation for Inclusion: Proposal and Evaluation of Its Indicators in Ordinary Schools with Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders

ABSTRACT Based on our definition, social participation as a central dimension in inclusive education implies knowing whether students, especially the most vulnerable, ”form part” of the group by relating in a positive and beneficial way with their peers and, consequently, can ”feel part”, which will be reflected in their well-being. This study aims to evaluate the social participation through of peer support and peer victimisation (taken as positive and negative indicator respectively), and its relationship with the perceived well-being of students belonging to schools where there are schoolmates with ASD enrolled throughout different educational stages. To this end, 404 students from Primary Education to Baccalaureate participated in this study. To collect the information, three questionnaires were adapted and used. The results show that the frequency of social support is higher than average in all courses although more girls than boys care about their peers. The frequency of peer abuse is in line with that found in similar studies, but social exclusion is higher in groups with students with ASD of Year 11, coinciding in this course a lower well-being perceived. This underlines the need to pay special attention to the secondary stage and go beyond seeking the acceptance of the other.

Coworker abuse in healthcare: voices of mistreated workers

PurposeThe appalling abuse healthcare workers have endured from patients is long documented in the popular press and social media. Less explored in the healthcare management literature is workplace abuse that professional nurses experience from their coworkers.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use text-based first-hand accounts from nurses posting on Reddit (N = 75) to better understand the types and context of abusive acts endured by their coworkers in the contemporary healthcare setting. Each account is content analyzed using two raters, and thematic analysis is utilized to summarize findings.FindingsFindings indicate that nurse workplace abuse frequently targets new entrants to a work unit (e.g. recent grads), typically is ongoing, takes verbal and nonverbal forms, mainly stems from coworkers (i.e. lateral mistreatment), and frequently takes place in front of other coworkers, mainly in hospital settings.Practical implicationsBy applying the lens of mindfulness, healthcare organizations can transform these harmful interactions within the nursing profession. The authors offer administrators and frontline workers practical implications for mitigating workplace abuse, including reshaping the culture, bystander interventions and explicit leadership support.Originality/valueFirst-hand accounts from nurses in the frontlines of healthcare provide a rich voice that reveals the reality of ongoing verbal and nonverbal peer abuse in hospitals and healthcare settings.

Gender-Specific Significance of Peer Abuse during Childhood and Adolescence on Physical and Mental Health in Adulthood—Results from a Cross-Sectional Study in a Sample of Hospital Patients

Peer abuse (PA) is a widespread and gender-sensitive form of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). However, research on its influence on physical and mental health in adulthood remains scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate gender-specific associations between PA and physical and mental health in adulthood in a sample of general hospital patients. A cross-sectional study at the University Hospital of Innsbruck was conducted. Data on ACEs, physical and mental health were collected using self-report questionnaires. We compared patients with no ACEs, PA only, ACEs without PA, and ACEs with PA using gender-specific binary logistic regressions to investigate the association of PA with physical and mental health. A total of 2,392 patients were included in the analyses. Women reported more emotional PA (13.1% vs. 9.4%; p = 0.006), while men reported more physical PA (8.3% vs. 5.2%; p = 0.003). PA was associated with a higher likelihood for depression (OR = 2.6), somatization (OR = 2.1), as well as worse physical health (OR = 2.1) in women but not in men. This study is the first to present data on the gender-specific detrimental effect of PA on physical and mental health in adulthood. Especially for women, PA poses a significant health risk. Thus, we should be aware of these effects and offer adequate support for affected individuals.

The Barriers and Facilitators to Abuse Disclosure and Psychosocial Support Needs in Children and Adolescents Around the Time of Disclosure

ABSTRACT Background Children who experience sexual or physical abuse often delay their disclosure. This study aimed to clarify the barriers and facilitators to abuse disclosure in a sample of children and adolescents participating in a police interview regarding alleged abuse. Method Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 children (nine girls) who participated in a police interview regarding alleged abuse. They were asked about their abuse disclosure, their own and others’ reactions to it, and the help and support they received from health service providers and other adults. Thematic analysis was used to identify themes, categories, and subthemes in the data. Results The key theme that emerged was the domino effect of disclosures, which occurred in three ways: unintentionally, delayed, or to professionals. Delays in, and reluctance to, disclose is explained in various ways. Four sub-categories emerged: ambivalence in personal and others’ reactions, missed opportunities, reflection depending on age, and varied psychosocial support needs. Notably, disclosure delays did occur because children identified abusive acts as transgressions or did not considered the abuse significant. Discussion The present study reveals the significance of others’ reactions to children’s disclosures. The pattern showed supportive responses when children reported transgressions committed by adults, whereas peer abuse was met with mixed responses. Importantly, health care providers such as doctors and psychologists were not preferred confidants. In line with previous research, disclosure to friends or non-abusive family members was more common. The present findings underscore the difficulty with which children disclose abusive experiences, even in instances where it led to a police investigation. Conclusions Child care practitioners need to be better equipped to meet a basic standard facilitating children to confide in others about abusive experiences. To increase the likelihood of keeping children in therapy after abuse, more active involvement of the child during clinical intervention seems important.

Contextual and Psychological Predictors of Militant Extremist Mindset in Youth.

The present study aims to identify contextual and psychological factors of proneness to radicalization and violent extremism (RVE) operationalized through the Militant Extremist Mindset scale (MEM) consisting of three distinct aspects: Proviolence (PV), Vile World beliefs (VW), and trust in Divine Power (DP). A community sample of 271 high school students (72% females) from Belgrade and Sandžak regions in Serbia completed: (1) a 24-item MEM scale; (2) contextual measures including a 6-item scale of family dysfunction (FDys) and a 4-item composite measure capturing exposure to a harsh school environment and peer abuse (HSE); (3) psychological measures including the 9-item Right-Wing Authoritarianism scale (RWA), the 5-item Social Dominance Orientation scale (SDO), and the 20-item UCLA Loneliness scale (LON). A path analysis was conducted with contextual factors on the first and psychological factors on the second level of the model predicting the three factors of MEM. LON was positively predicted by FDys and HSE, SDO by HSE only, while RWA was positively predicted by FDys only. Contextual and psychological factors accounted for 27% of the variance in PV (LON, SDO), 15% of the variance in VW (FDys, SDO), and 31% of the variance in DP (RWA). Obtained findings reveal a complex interplay of contextual and psychological drivers in the prediction of different aspects of RVE and build upon existing knowledge on risk factors associated with RVE.

The Effects of Peer Attachment, Abuse, and Self - Esteem on Adolescent's mobile phone Dependency

The Effects of Peer Attachment, Abuse, and Self - Esteem on Adolescent's mobile phone Dependency

Peer bullying in students aged 11 to 13 with and without special educational needs in Extremadura (Spain)

ABSTRACT Bullying occurs in all countries where it has been studied, causing negative effects on victims such as anxiety, low self-esteem and even depressive pictures that hinder their integration into the school environment. In Spain, one of the first studies to address peer abuse as violent behaviour in the school context was that of the Ombudsman in 1999. This study has sought to address the incidence of bullying in students with and without SEN, from the perspective of victims, witnesses and aggressors, and has also sought to reveal the most relevant characteristics of bullying situations. To this end, a questionnaire adapted from the Ombudsman-UNICEF Questionnaire (2007) was used. The sample consisted of 1077 participants (51% of boys and 49% of girls) between 11 and 13 years of 34 compulsory education centres in the Autonomous Community of Extremadura (Spain). The Chi-Square test and the Mann–Whitney U test were used to analyse the difference for meanings below 0.05. The results confirm that students with SEN are more vulnerable to bullying by their peers.

Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and associated physical and mental health problems amongst hospital patients: Results from a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can have severe detrimental effects on physical and mental health. This study aimed to present prevalence rates of ACEs amongst a mixed sample of hospital patients. MethodsIn- and outpatients at seven departments of the University Hospital of Innsbruck (Austria) participated in the study. They completed questionnaires regarding retrospective assessments of ACEs, physical and mental health and experience of domestic violence. The impact of ACEs on patients' health was evaluated by calculation of odds ratios (OR) in binary logistic regressions. ResultsA total of n = 2392 (74.3% of all approached patients) were included in the analyses. The results showed that 36.1% of them reported at least one form of ACEs, and 6.3% were polyvictimized (i.e. they reported ≥4 forms of ACEs). Most frequent forms of ACE were emotional abuse (18.3%), peer abuse (14.2%), and neglect (12.3%). ACEs were significantly associated with increased ORs for various physical diseases, mental health problems and domestic violence. ConclusionRetrospectively assessed ACEs are highly prevalent amongst hospital patients and exposure to high numbers of ACEs is associated with decreased physical and mental health. The identification of patients with symptoms following ACEs and referral to appropriate treatment is a crucial challenge for health-care professionals.

El maltrato en educación secundaria según sexo y curso escolar. Relaciones con iguales, gusto por la escuela y satisfacción vital de maltratadores y víctimas

A review and an analysis of peer abuse and bullying in adolescents were carried out for the purposes of this piece of research. An assessment was made of the ways peer abuse can be presented during this stage of human development, as well as the differences according to gender and school year. Additionally, the potential association with other varia-bles was analysed such as school liking, the relationships with equals and the satisfaction of adolescents with life. The results were compared depending on whether the adolescent was a victim or a bully and the relationship between being a bully and being a victim was put under analysis. The study was carried out with 1,128 adolescents registered in the 1st and 4th years of obligatory secondary school (average age: 14.4 years old). 13% of the respondents stated that they had been bullied some time and 21.2% stated they had taken part in an episode of bullying. There is more bullying in the 1st year of obligatory secondary education than in the 4th year. The most frequent form of bullying was verbal (28.5%); followed by spreading lies and rumours with the intention of harming others (27.4%), which was more frequent amongst girls; social bullying (ignoring or excluding others) is suffered by 18.4% of the respondents with no gender difference; physical bullying is suffered by 7.7% and mostly amongst boys. Bullies and victims, compared to others, feel unhappier and think their moment in life is worse than others. Bullies feel less accepted and more disliked by others. Victims like school less than others. The differences with other papers are discussed here A review and an analysis of peer abuse and bullying in adolescents were carried out for the purposes of this piece of research. An assessment was made of the ways peer abuse can be presented during this stage of human development, as well as the differences according to gender and school year. Additionally, the potential association with other varia­bles was analysed such as school liking, the relationships with equals and the satisfaction of adolescents with life. The results were compared depending on whether the adolescent was a victim or a bully and the relationship between being a bully and being a victim was put under analysis. The study was carried out with 1,128 adolescents registered in the 1st and 4th years of obligatory secondary school (average age: 14.4 years old). 13% of the respondents stated that they had been bullied some time and 21.2% stated they had taken part in an episode of bullying. There is more bullying in the 1st year of obligatory secondary education than in the 4th year. The most frequent form of bullying was verbal (28.5%); followed by spreading lies and rumours with the intention of harming others (27.4%), which was more frequent amongst girls; social bullying (ignoring or excluding others) is suffered by 18.4% of the respondents with no gender difference; physical bullying is suffered by 7.7% and mostly amongst boys. Bullies and victims, compared to others, feel unhappier and think their moment in life is worse than others. Bullies feel less accepted and more disliked by others. Victims like school less than others. The differences with other papers are discussed here

Transgender awareness in early years education (EYE): ‘we haven’t got any of those here’

ABSTRACT The paper marks the growth of interest in transgender rights and argues for the value of transgender awareness as a challenge to gender binary thinking. It identifies early years education as a powerful site for a focus on gender non-conformity and aims to draw together theoretical and practical forms of support for the EYE staff who respond to young children’s gendered expressions on an everyday basis. The authors draw on data gathered within their respective research and professional training trajectories which are understood through queer and feminist poststructuralist theory, together with approaches from transgender studies. These are combined to emphasise gender multiplicities and pluralities of sexuality. The paper examines how staff can be supported towards greater gender sensitivity and considers how the presence of more male teachers in EYE can act as a catalyst for developing a gender flexible pedagogy. It concludes that a growing awareness of transgender benefits the mental health and wellbeing of all young children, and protects gender- variant children from peer abuse.

Prospective associations between children's depressive symptoms and peer victimization: The role of social helplessness.

Investigating precursors to peer victimization, a particularly damaging form of peer maltreatment, represents an important research objective. This study's purpose was to evaluate the hypothesis that social helplessness is one mechanism underlying the pathway from early depressive symptoms to subsequent peer victimization among preadolescents in the third through fifth grades (N=230; 126 girls; Mage at recruitment=9.48; SD=0.68). We collected self-reports of depressive symptoms and peer victimization and teacher reports of social helplessness in the fall of 2015 or 2016 (T1) and at two subsequent time points (T2 and T3) separated by 6-month lags. Results from a random intercepts cross-lagged panel model provided evidence for our hypothesized model in which T2 social helplessness partially mediated the effect of T1 depressive symptoms on T3 peer victimization. Findings underscore the importance of school-based prevention and youth development programmes that promote social-emotional learning for youth who are symptomatic for depression. Statement of contribution What is already known on the subject? Children's depressive symptoms and interpersonal dysfunction are related in a transactional way. Children who are symptomatic for depression tend to exhibit social-behavioural deficits. Depression-linked, social-behavioural deficits are associated with relationship disturbances. What does this study add? Children's socially helpless behaviour mediated the contribution of depressive symptoms to subsequent peer victimization. Depressive symptoms predicted, and were predicted by, socially helpless behaviour. Socially helpless behaviour increased risk for, but did not result from, peer victimization.

From genograms to peer group mapping: introducing peer relationships into social work assessment and intervention

Despite evidence that young people’s peer relationships are associated with their experiences of abuse, child protection guidance directs social work practice to be primarily focused on the assessment of, and intervention with, families. Presenting data from two studies into the nature of, and safeguarding response to, peer abuse in England, this article questions the familial parameters of child protection frameworks, and evidences the need to include peer group relationships within social work assessment. Drawing on Bourdieu’s sociological theory, a conceptual framework is used to evidence that familial-focused practice fails to address the extra-familial social conditions in which peer abuse manifests. Complimenting an international evidence base that promotes ecological responses to adolescent welfare and social service development, this article suggests that advancing knowledge of peer group assessment and intervention should form a central part of the child protection research agenda.

Unraveling the long‐term links among adolescent peer victimization and somatic symptoms: A 5‐year multi‐informant cohort study

AbstractPurposeTo examine the prospective associations among peer victimization and somatic symptoms across 5 years of adolescence using multiple informants and disaggregating effects at the within‐person and between‐person level.MethodsFrom age 13–17 years, 612 Canadian children (54% girls; 76% White) completed measures of peer victimization and somatic symptoms. Parents (89% mothers) reported on their child's somatic symptoms. We built autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals, controlling for diagnosed medical and psychiatric conditions, sex, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.ResultsWithin‐person, self‐reported somatic symptoms were stable across time and there were bidirectional associations between peer victimization and somatic symptoms across the 5‐year period. The magnitude of effect was strongest from somatic symptoms to peer victimization. Between‐person, being a girl or having a psychiatric diagnosis predicted higher mean levels and rising trajectories of somatic symptoms and higher mean levels of peer victimization. The level of peer victimization among non‐White participants increased over time. In the parent‐reported model, somatic symptoms were less stable and did not predict peer victimization.ConclusionsThe results highlight the dynamic processes between peer victimization and somatic symptoms. Increased effort is needed to protect adolescents with psychiatric problems, girls, and ethnic minorities from peer abuse.

Blurring the Line between Free Speech and Harassment in Schools

School bullying, or repeated power-based peer abuse and harassment, is a social pandemic in U.S. schools. According to Teaching Tolerance’s monthly series “Hate at School,” there have been 459 repo...

Analysis of Deviant Friends’ Mediator Effect on Relationships Between Adolescent Risk Behaviours and Peer Bullying, Abuse Experiences and Psychological Resilience

The purpose of this study is to develop a structural equation model that explains the mediating roles of deviant friends in the relationship between high school students’ risk behaviors and their childhood abuse experiences, peer bullying and also psychological resilience levels. For this purpose, data were collected from 562 students who attend Anatolian High Schools in Burdur city center. Ego Resilience Questionnaire, Peer Bullying Detection Questionnaire, Childhood Experience of Abuse Questionnaire, Deviant Friends Questionnaire and Risky Behavior Questionnaire were used as data collection tools in the study. The findings obtained within the framework of structural equation modeling revealed that deviant friends assumed a mediatory role on the relationship between adolescents’ childhood abuse experiences, peer bullying, psychological resilience levels and adolescents’ risk behaviors. It was asserted that, while deviant friends exhibited complete mediatory role between the relationship between childhood abuse experiences and risk behaviors, deviant friends assumed partial mediatory role on the relationship between peer bullying, psychological resilience and risk behaviors. Findings of the study were discussed in context of the literature, and some suggestions were made for future studies.

Introduction to the Special Issue: The Neurobiology of Peer Victimization

Introduction to the Special Issue:The Neurobiology of Peer Victimization Tracy Vaillancourt (bio) Being the target of goal-directed aggression that is typically repeated and occurring in the context of a power imbalance (Olweus, 1993; Volk, Veenstra, & Espelage, 2017) happens at an alarming rate. Most population-based studies indicate that peer victimization affects about 30% of children and youth worldwide (Nansen et al., 2001; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine [NASEM], 2016; UNICEF, 2013), making it the most common form of aggression that youth are exposed to (Vaillancourt, 2018). Peer victimization has long been thought to be a normal part of growing up; however, recent research on the continuing effects of bullying has challenged this glib viewpoint. Indeed, this research has documented that the negative impact of peer victimization is extensive and enduring—affecting victims well into the future and long after the abuse has stopped (Lereya, Copeland, Costello, & Wolke, 2015; Takizawa, Maughan, & Arseneault, 2014). Given the severity of this issue (i.e., prevalent and destructive), researchers have focused their attention in earnest on identifying psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with peer victimization with the aim of developing appropriate interventions. This research has [End Page 1] been instrumental in providing insight into the prevalence, individual and contextual correlates, and negative consequences of peer victimization (NASEM, 2016). However, this research has also failed to provide insight into processes and mechanisms, given its descriptive nature (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Another notable issue with this research is that it has failed to consider how individual and contextual factors interact with biology to confer risk, protection, or resiliency (Vaillancourt, 2018; Vaillancourt, Hymel, & McDougall, 2013; Vaillancourt, Sanderson, Arnold, & McDougall, 2017), which is the focus of this special issue on the neurobiology of peer victimization. Neurobiology is a broad term used to describe the study of the nervous system that includes the examination of its anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology. Research can include analyzing neural networks, genetics, neurotransmitters, and hormones. In this special issue, the emphasis is on inflammatory biomarkers, autonomic nervous system reactivity, the stress response system, and neural functioning in relation to peer victimization. These areas of inquiry are informed by a rich literature on the biological effects of stress in animals (Lupien, McEwen, Gunnar, & Heim, 2009; Lupien, Ouellet-Morin, Herba, Juster, & McEwen, 2016) and on new evidence in humans that documents how early life adversity such as being maltreated by a caregiver, or living in poverty, can program physiology and behavior (Bick et al., 2012; Lupien et al., 2009, 2016; Shalev & Belsky, 2016). Being victimized by peers is a toxic stressor that interferes with a person's fundamental need to belong (R. F. Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Toxic stress refers to the "strong and chronic activation of the body's stress system in the absence of a buffering protection to stop the activation" of the stress response system (Lupien et al., 2016, p. 7). Targets of peer abuse perceive the experience as highly stressful (Sharp, 1995), and recent studies on the biological effects of bullying, including those in this special issue, support this viewpoint. Peer victimization has been associated with: (a) changes to the neuroendocrine stress response system (Carney, Hazler, Oh, Hibel, & Granger, 2010; Hansen, Hogh, & Persson, 2011; Hansen et al., 2006; Kliewer, 2006, 2016; Ouellet-Morin, Danese, et al., 2011; Ouellet-Morin, Odgers, et al., 2011; Ouellet-Morin et al., 2013; Vaillancourt et al., 2008), (b) increased inflammation (Copeland et al., 2014; Takizawa, Danese, Maughan, & Arsenault, 2015), and (c) epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation (Ouellet-Morin et al., 2013). Neuroimaging studies have also shown that the brain processes exclusion by peers as social pain (Rudolph, Miernicki, Troop-Gordon, Davis, & Telzer, 2016; for a review, see Vaillancourt et al., 2013), with similar regions activated [End Page 2] as those associated with physical pain (Eisenberger, 2012; Eisenberger & Lieberman, 2004; Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Williams, 2003). These biological changes are consistent with what is known about the negative effects of chronic and/or extreme stress on health and well-being (Selye, 1976). Psychological or physical stressors initiate a biological cascade that includes increased heart rate, blood pressure, and the increased production of stress hormones like cortisol. This physiological response helps the organism adapt to stressors...