Pedagogical Competence Research Articles

Digital Literacy and Teaching Experience as Predictors of Pedagogical Competence in the Digital Era

This study investigates the influence of digital literacy and teaching experience on teachers' pedagogical competencies and essential skills, which are crucial for ensuring effective and high-quality learning processes. In the digital era, digital literacy empowers teachers to integrate technology into teaching, while teaching experience shapes their ability to manage classrooms and deliver effective instruction. Despite the increasing importance of these factors, there still needs to be a gap in understanding how they interact to enhance pedagogical competence. Data was gathered by administering questionnaires to 136 private senior high school teachers in the Cengkareng sub-district, who were chosen proportionately at random using a quantitative technique and multiple linear regression analysis. The findings indicate that digital literacy and teaching experience significantly influence teachers' pedagogical competence. These results underscore the importance of promoting digital literacy and fostering teaching experience as strategic measures to improve pedagogical competence. The study suggests that targeted professional development initiatives should enhance these factors to improve teaching effectiveness and ultimately elevate school learning outcomes.

OPTIMALISASI KOMPETENSI PEDAGOGIK GURU SD MELALUI PEMBELAJARAN BERDIFERENSIASI BERBASIS ETHNO-RME

This community service is motivated by the importance of differentiated learning to facilitate students' learning needs, in addition to the need to use teaching materials that are close to students' daily lives through an approach based on Ethno-Realistic Mathematics Education. The purpose of this activity is to optimize the pedagogical and professional skills of elementary school teachers through training and mentoring in digital differentiated learning based on Ethno-Realistic Mathematics Education. This activity was carried out at SD Negeri Tunjung 1 involving 38 elementary school teachers who are members of the Teacher Working Group (KKG) Gugus 1 Korwil Kec. Tunjung Teja. Mentoring and training were carried out by three lecturers from La Tansa Mashiro University with presentations of materials related to differentiated learning, Ethno-RME materials and sharing good practices of differentiated learning based on Ethno-Realistic Mathematics Education. The activity procedure consists of observation and interviews with partner schools, training and mentoring in preparing learning designs, developing differentiated learning and implementing Ethno-RME. The results of this service were an increase of 59,6% in the pedagogical and professional competence of teachers in digital differentiated learning based on Ethno-Realistic Mathematics Education.

Evaluating computer science teaching competence: teachers’ self-efficacy and professional development

Evaluating computer science (CS) teacher competencies is crucial for advancing CS education. This study aims to develop and evaluate a self-efficacy assessment tool for CS teaching competence among 1412 CS teachers nationwide in Thailand. Using structural equation modeling, the validity of the tool was examined across four domains: Content Knowledge and Skills (CK), Instructional Design (ID), Classroom Management (CM), and Professional Development (PD). The results demonstrated a good model fit and validity (CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, PNFI = 0.85, RMSEA = 0.08, SRMR = 0.02, GFI = 0.97). Significant differences in self-efficacy were observed across the domains with a medium effect size (χ2(3) = 1233.26, p < .001, w = 0.29), with the highest self-efficacy in PD, followed by CM, CK, and ID. Teachers in their 30 s showed greater confidence in CM, while those with 5–9 years of experience exhibited the highest overall self-efficacy. Secondary school teachers expressed more confidence in ID and PD than primary school teachers. Additionally, teachers in smaller schools, categorized by the number of students, reported significantly lower self-efficacy in CK (p = .01), ID (p < .01), and CM (p < .01) than those in larger schools. These findings highlight the need for specific and continuing PD programs to address differences in teacher competencies and improve the quality of CS education in Thailand.

Assessing Pre-service Teachers' Level of Technical-vocational and Pedagogical Competencies in Southern Philippines

Pre-service teaching is a fundamental component of teacher preparation, providing future educators with hands-on experience in the classroom, where they can apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings. This phase is essential in shaping teachers who will contribute to societal progress by educating future generations. However, despite its importance, there are challenges in consistently assessing the competencies of pre-service teachers, especially within technical-vocational and pedagogical education, where standards can vary. Addressing these gaps in assessment is crucial for developing a skilled teaching workforce, which is why this study aims to evaluate the technical-vocational and pedagogical competencies of fifty (50) BTVTED pre-service teachers selected using the total population sampling technique in Southern Philippines. A validated 5-point Likert scale survey questionnaire comprised of 42 items specifically designed to assess pre-service teachers' technical-vocational and pedagogical competencies were utilized in the data collection of the study. This study employed descriptive research design and statistical tools like mean and standard deviation to analyze and interpret the data gathered. The study’s findings revealed that the grand mean of the pre-service teachers' technical-vocational and pedagogical competencies (M=4.47, SD=0.86) is classified as “Competent”. The highest ratings were observed in the “Diversity of Learners” (M=4.63, SD=0.61), “Learning Environment” (M=4.59, SD=0.62), “Curriculum and Planning” (M=4.59, SD=0.67), “Community Linkages and Professional Engagement” (M=4.52, SD=0.65), and “Technical and Vocational Knowledge and Pedagogy” (M=4.32, SD=0.81) which are classified as “Highly Competent”. The lowest ratings were observed in the “Assessment and Reporting” (M=4.33, SD=0.84) and “Personal Growth and Professional Development” (M=4.34, SD=0.86) which are classified as “Competent” only. In conclusion, while the pre-service teachers still perceive themselves as competent in some areas, there is some indication that they feel less equipped to apply various assessment methods and engage in ongoing self-improvement consistently. Recommendations to enhance pre-service teachers’ least mastered competencies and for future research are included in this study.

Analysis of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Competence of Biology Teachers in the Use of High School Instructional Media

This study aims to analyze the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) competence of biology teachers in the use of instructional media in high schools in Kuala Tungkal. This research employs a descriptive method with a quantitative approach, involving 7 biology teachers from 3 public high schools in Kuala Tungkal as subjects. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The results indicate that the technology-based instructional media used by teachers vary according to the needs of the materials being taught. In terms of technological knowledge, the average percentage obtained was 77.78%, which falls under the Good category, while the pedagogical content knowledge aspect scored an average percentage of 84.4%, categorized as Very Good. The conclusion of this study suggests that biology teachers in Kuala Tungkal have good TPACK competence in the use of instructional media. Recommendations from this study include the enhancement of training for developing more advanced technology-based instructional media, such as e-modules and interactive simulations, to further improve the quality of biology education.

ПІДГОТОВКА ВИКЛАДАЧІВ ПРОФЕСІЙНО-ХУДОЖНІХ ДИСЦИПЛІН В УКРАЇНІ: ПРОФЕСІЙНО-ПЕДАГОГІЧНИЙ АСПЕКТ

Despite military aggression from Russia, Ukraine continues actively develop professional and pedagogical training, which is an important factor in improving the quality of education and professional growth of teachers. Professional and pedagogical training plays a key role in ensuring the quality of education and professional development of teachers. It forms pedagogical competences, provides teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary for effective work with students, including teaching methods, planning and management. Thanks to it, teachers learn the basics of pedagogical ethics and moral values, which helps to create a healthy learning atmosphere and promote the harmonious development of students’ personalities. Methodology. Professional training in higher education institutions is carried out according to various organizational forms, models, systems and programs, the main purpose of which is the formation of positive motivation and involvement in active educational and cognitive activities, which is the basis of the professional self-development of the future specialist. Therefore, the purpose of our study is to analyze modern approaches to the professional and pedagogical training of teachers of professional and artistic disciplines in Ukraine. To identify key problems and challenges in the field of training teachers of artistic disciplines. Outline the main directions and methods that ensure high-quality training of specialists in the field of art teaching. To investigate the role of pedagogical education in the formation of competences of teachers of professional and artistic disciplines. To propose ways of improving the system of training of pedagogical personnel to increase the level of teaching of artistic disciplines. Results. Thanks to professional and pedagogical training, teachers can update their knowledge about modern teaching methods, pedagogical technologies and approaches to education. Professional and pedagogical training allows for a deeper mastering of specific disciplines, which enables teachers to impart special knowledge at a high professional level. In general, professional and pedagogical training is the basis for the creation of qualified and competent teachers, which contributes to the improvement of the quality of education and the success of students in their studies. In our study, we consider the professional and pedagogical training of teachers of professional and artistic disciplines, which is aimed at the formation of pedagogical personnel who have the theory and practice of teaching fine arts in general education, specialized and higher educational institutions, as well as in the system of additional education. Key words: professional and pedagogical training, teachers of professional and artistic disciplines, institutions of higher education, competence, knowledge, skills.

Do early childhood teachers develop multicultural teaching competence by participating in professional development?

ABSTRACT The increase in ethnic and cultural diversity in kindergartens requires teachers to leverage their professional capacity to work competently with students from ethnically diverse backgrounds. This article reports the results of a teacher professional development (PD) programme infused with culturally responsive teaching for developing the multicultural teaching competence of early childhood teachers in Hong Kong regarding their knowledge, skills, and relationships. Sixty-six teachers attending the programme took 20 sessions of PD courses over eight months, whereas 58 teachers who did not attend were recruited to form a control group. The pre- and post-test data were examined via multilevel modelling. Results revealed significantly positive changes in programme group teachers’ reported knowledge, skills, and relationships after controlling for teacher demographic characteristics. The promising PD effects suggested that the PD opportunities enhanced teachers’ perceived multicultural competence; thus, they reported becoming more competent in engaging in culturally responsive practices upon completing the programme.

Enhancing Pedagogical Competencies through Continuous Training: A Professional Approach

Professional growth through the process of continuing Professional Development (CPD) is significant for the improvement of teachers’ professional competency and for better preparation to meet diverse and challenging contexts of educational environments. In this quantitative study, the research seeks to examine the effects of CPD on teaching confidence, classroom management, and student achievement. Using a survey technique, information was obtained from 200 educators in primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions on the extent to which they self-identified enhancements in the areas of subject content knowledge, classroom management, integration of technology, and student interest. The results presented enhanced competencies after participation in CPD with greater enhancements in the application of technology. Among the types of activities, workshops and/or online training were identified as the most beneficial for CPD practices, while the frequency of participation in such practices was found to be a definite factor in competency improvement. However, there are challenges including restricted access and the issue of resources especially if the environment that the research is being conducted is not well endowed. As such, the study calls for more frequent, varied, and accessible and sustainable CPD in ways relevant to educators’ contexts to help inform policymakers and institutions on the ways to promote 21st Century teachers and learning.

Validation of a survey instrument for understanding online teaching dexterity in higher education

ABSTRACT Online teaching competency has been treated as teachers’ ability to execute standardised online teaching roles. This does not capture teachers’ pedagogical agility for manoeuvring a variety of online teaching contexts. This study conceptualises online teaching dexterity as teachers’ technical dexterity with managing learning technologies, and their pedagogical agility to implement online learning through subject domain online teaching dexterity, dexterity over online modalities, online assessment dexterity, and dexterity for manifesting care to both students and self. Through an international survey of 163 higher education academics from New Zealand and China, this five-dimension model was validated with exploratory factor analysis. Subsequent cluster analysis identified four distinct online teaching dexterity profiles – All-rounders, Teaching-driven, Tech-driven, and Care-driven. These profiles reveal different teacher professional development needs through their relative confidence in the technical and pedagogical dimensions of online teaching dexterity. The relevance of Online Teaching Dexterity surveys to higher education practices are discussed.

Self-Control or Crime Control: Teachers’ Insights on Good Practices in 1:1 Classrooms and Implications for Professional Development

Norway ranks high in digitalization in schools, with over 90% of students in grades 1–10 having their own digital device supplied by their school districts and reporting the highest use of digital tools globally in the latest PISA report. However, research shows that implementation processes and competence measures for teachers’ professional use of digital devices vary considerably between schools. This study aims to inform the development of research-practice partnership (RPP) measures focused on professional digital competence development in digitalizing schools internationally by exploring what teachers consider important for good teaching practices in 1:1 computing classrooms. We draw on both closed and open survey responses from 1505 Norwegian teachers in highly digitalized schools where the most experienced teachers have had 1:1 computing since 2014. The findings show that classroom management is seen as gradually more important with higher digital teaching competence and more experience, but that the teachers’ understandings of what digital competence entails and their use of classroom management strategies are rather limited. The study concludes that professional competence development measures that provide broader understandings of digital competence and classroom management are needed, dependent on competence levels and experience, as well as systematic training of students’ digital self-regulation.

Developing a Performance-Based Assessment to Measure Pre-Service Secondary Teachers’ Digital Competence to Use Digital Mathematics Tools

AbstractDigital competence is an increasingly important component of teacher competence. So far, self-reports are a commonly used, efficient, but potentially problematic assessment method. Standardized and valid assessments to measure digital competence for teachers—particularly of a concrete subject—and proximally to performance are lacking. To address this, we developed a performance-based assessment for pre-service mathematics teachers based on the TPACK and DigCompEdu frameworks, both widely used in teacher education. The test focuses on digital competence related to mathematics tools such as computer algebra systems, dynamic geometry, and spreadsheet software, where technical-mathematical and pedagogical competences are required. This report presents the assessment design and provides validity evidence regarding the internal structure of the test, its sensitivity to intervention, and the relation of the scores to external variables, like affective-motivational aspects or prior experiences with tools based on a study with N = 118 pre-service teachers. First, we confirmed a two-dimensional structure of technical-mathematical and pedagogical aspects of digital competence through a confirmatory factor analysis. Second, expectations regarding the relation to external variables were partially confirmed. Third, we identified the sensitivity of the assessment to an intervention. Especially as expected, the relations between scores and self-assessment results were mixed. Our results indicate that the assessment is suitable for measuring pre-service mathematics teachers’ digital competence in two aspects close to performance. We discuss possible uses to evaluate learning opportunities in teacher education.

Professional development for Indonesian elementary school teachers: Increased competency and sustainable teacher development programs

Background Various problems, such as a shortage of teachers, especially in certain outlying and underdeveloped provinces, unequal distribution of teachers, low teacher competency, and mismatch between educational qualifications and scientific fields, as well as the demands of increasingly dynamic developments in science and technology, resulting in the need for professional development for elementary school teachers to improve teacher professionalism in Indonesia. These background as a basis for the government to create teacher professional education program for elementary school teachers continuously. It is hoped that it will be able to answer the educational problems facing the Indonesian nation. This research explores the opinions of elementary school teachers who have participated in teacher professional development activities through the in-service teacher professional education program. Methods We collected data through a written survey of 24 elementary school teachers, as well as article documents relevant to the research topic. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Result The research produced two main themes: increasing teacher competencies and sustainable teacher development programs. Increasing teacher competency related to social competence, pedagogical competence and professional competence. The sustainable teacher development program is related to the guaranteeing the instructional quality of post-program and multi-sectoral collaboration Conclusion Developing teacher professionalism through teacher professional education program in elementary schools in Indonesia positively impacts teachers’ becoming professional teachers. Teacher professional education program is an indication of improving teacher professionalism, especially in developing teaching skills, improving the quality of instruction, teacher motivation and individual development in dealing with various problems in instruction in the classroom, especially in elementary schools, so that the instructional objectives that have been set can be achieved. The professionalism of elementary school teachers will improve if there are sustainable programs such as mentoring programs from the government, universities and parties that focus on improving the quality of education in Indonesia

Shaping future preschool teachers in Ethiopia: A qualitative evaluation of pedagogical competence development mechanisms

Preschool teacher training programs in Ethiopia are designed to enhance the teaching skills of future teachers. Grounded in this context, this study aimed at evaluating how a pre-service teacher education program develops these essential pedagogical competences through coursework and hands-on training. Using phenomenological design, the research focuses on preschool teacher candidates, instructors, department heads, and education officials from six selected teacher education colleges across Ethiopia, involving a total of 18 participants chosen for convenience. To gather qualitative data, the study employed semi-structured interviews and direct observations of lesson facilitation. The findings indicate a strong and effective preschool teacher education program that develops the pedagogical competencies of preschool teachers. However, it was highlighted that there are significant challenges such as limited practical exposure, resource constraints, and language barriers. Key findings emphasize the need for improved support mechanisms, highlighting the importance of practical training components in the improved curriculum, optimum practical exposures, enriching extracurricular activities, rigorous assessment methods, and the provision of constructive feedback.

Exploring the Role of Emotional and Spiritual Intelligence in enhancing Teaching Competency: A Study on the Influence of Personal Growth and Interpersonal Skills on Educator effectiveness

This study examines the role of emotional intelligence (EI) and spiritual intelligence (SI) in enhancing teaching competency, emphasizing the mediating influence of personal growth and interpersonal skills on educator effectiveness. Emotional intelligence, which encompasses self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, and social skills, enables teachers to manage classroom dynamics, foster meaningful relationships, and create supportive learning environments. Similarly, spiritual intelligence, defined by purpose-driven actions, ethical alignment, and resilience, equips educators to inspire students holistically while maintaining balance and moral integrity in their professional roles. The interplay of these intelligences with personal growth, characterized by self-reflection, adaptability, and continuous learning, further enriches teaching practices, enabling educators to respond effectively to evolving classroom challenges. Interpersonal skills, including communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution, are integral to building constructive relationships with students, colleagues, and parents, amplifying the impact of EI and SI on teaching effectiveness. Employing a mixed methods approach, the study combines quantitative measures of EI, SI, and teaching competency with qualitative insights from interviews and focus groups to provide a comprehensive understanding of these dynamics. Findings highlight the transformative potential of integrating EI and SI into teacher training programs, fostering a holistic approach to professional development that prioritizes emotional and spiritual dimensions alongside technical expertise. The study underscores the importance of fostering these intelligences to empower educators to navigate the complexities of modern education with resilience, empathy, and purpose. By advancing a framework that integrates emotional and spiritual intelligence with personal and interpersonal development, this research contributes to the growing body of knowledge advocating for a more inclusive and value-driven approach to enhancing teaching competency and improving educational outcomes.

The Impact of In-Service Teacher Education Program on Competency Improvement Among Islamic Religious Education Teachers Using Self-Assessment

Participation in PPG Daljab is essential for improving the performance of Islamic Religious Education (PAI) teachers and promoting internal quality assurance within teacher training institutes (LPTKs). However, how can we effectively assess participation, particularly for individual teachers? This quantitative study investigates the impact of in-service teacher education programs on PAI teachers’ competencies using individual self-assessment. This study involved 255 PAI teachers from three LPTKs under the Ministry of Religious Affairs: UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung, UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, and UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. Teachers’ competencies were measured across four dimensions: pedagogical, personality, social, and professional competence. The findings indicate that the PPG program effectively supported the self-development of PAI teachers who have obtained professional certification. The PPG program enhanced teachers’ competencies across all dimensions, with the most significant improvement in personality competence. However, in the professional dimension, areas such as learning evaluation and the use of technology and digital learning require further strengthening post-PPG program. This article provides recommendations for stakeholders to develop continuing professional education programs following the PPG program, taking into consideration PAI teachers’ lack of competence.

Exploration of Digital Teaching Faced by Teachers in the Pandemic Era

The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted a significant shift to remote work and distance learning, requiring individuals to adapt to new technologies. This study analyzed data from 2,500 junior high school teachers in Chaiyi, Taiwan, revealing that high system service quality positively impacts teaching competencies, teacher involvement, and effectiveness. Despite advancements in digital tools, challenges such as equipment availability and varying teacher willingness hinder widespread adoption. Effective remote teaching requires ongoing support from institutions and the enhancement of teachers' digital literacy to ensure optimal learning outcomes.

Effectiveness of Teachers Training Program in Enhancing Teaching Competence of Public Primary School Teachers in Ilemela Municipality, Tanzania

The study aims to investigate the Effectiveness of Teachers Training Program in Enhancing Teaching Competence of Public Primary School Teachers in Ilemela Municipality, Tanzania. The problem of this study was answered by the one research questions; TCPD training programs in enhancing teaching competence. The study was guided by the Social Cognitive Theory. The current study employed convergent design under mixed research methods approach. The target population consisted of various stakeholders, including 81 public primary schools, 1,047 teachers, 19 Ward Education Officers, 81 head teachers, and 8 District quality assurers making total number of 1155 population. The sample size for the current study consisted of 16 public primary schools, 192 teachers, 16 head teachers, 6 Ward Education Officers (WEO), and 2 District School Quality Assurers (DSQA), totaling 216 respondents. Questionnaires, interview guides, and document analysis guides were used to collect data from respondents. Data collection instruments were validated by MWECAU research experts. A pilot study was conducted in two public primary schools. The reliability of questionnaires for Likert-type items was estimated using Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient whereby r= 0.889 for teachers while that of qualitative established through peer debriefing and triangulation. The study adhered to ethical considerations throughout the research process. Descriptive statistics were analyzed quantitative data using SPSS version 26. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically. The study found that the TCPD is highly effective in improving teaching competence through focused training on classroom management, instructional design, differentiated instruction, student engagement, and technology integration significantly improved their teaching skills. The study concluded that Continuing Professional Development (CPD) effectively Enhanced Teaching Competence of Public Primary School Teachers in Ilemela Municipality to the high extent. The study recommended that a similar training program should be implemented regularly to equip teachers with up-date skills and knowledge.

Integrating the Key Competencies of International Large-Scale Assessment (ILSA) into the Teacher-Education Curriculum in the Philippines

This study proposes a framework to integrate competencies from various international large-scale assessments (ILSAs) into the program design of a teacher educational institution (TEI) in the Philippines. Using a descriptive-developmental research design, the study examined how ILSA key competencies can be incorporated into the curriculum, along with practices of outcomes-based educational programs at the TEI. Inductive thematic analysis of focus group interviews revealed one overarching program-level theme: using ILSA as a benchmark for curriculum development. At the micro level, four core themes emerged: (1) strengthened content teaching, (2) increased pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) courses, (3) explicit targeting and teaching of ILSA competencies through course-intended learning outcomes (CILOs), and (4) ILSA-like assessments. The study recommends that the Philippine Department of Education (DepEd) and TEIs collaborate to align pre-service teacher training with global literacy standards, ensuring that pre-service teachers are equipped to teach ILSA-recommended skills.

Hubungan Antara Kompetensi Pedagogik Mahasiswa Kampus Mengajar dengan Hasil Belajar Praktik Mengajar TP FIP UNP

This research was motivated by students who participated in the Teaching Campus (KM) who had not been able to master and apply pedagogic competencies properly while participating in the KM program. This study aims to determine the relationship between the pedagogic competence of teaching campus students and the learning outcomes of TP FIP UNP teaching practice. This research was conducted using a quantitative research method in the form of correlation. Where there are 31 sample students who took part in KM. The data collection technique is the learning outcomes of student teaching practice. The data analysis techniques are normality test and linearity test with product moment correlation test mode. Based on the person correlation test of variable X of 0.043, this value is between 0.00-0.19 which means that the level of closeness of the variable X with Y is very weak, the Pearson Correlation value in a negative form indicates that if the variable X increases, the Y variable decreases and indicates that the Pearson correlation relationship is not unidirectional. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between pedagogic competence and the learning outcomes of KM students' teaching practice.

Examining the role of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in strengthening inclusive education in teacher education: A Vygotskian analysis of change projects from Malawi and Eswatini

Inclusive education has a transformative agenda that challenges education systems to accommodate gender and social class as well as diverse needs that include disability. Despite being emphasised in schools, its application in teacher education has been limited. This gap indicates that while inclusive education is prioritised in schools, teachers may lack pedagogical competencies that have not been allowed for in their training. At the same time, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has been recognised for its potential to transform education systems given its orientation towards collaborative learning, whole institution approaches, and respect for diversity. In this study, drawing on experiences from UNESCO's Sustainability Starts with Teachers (SST) programme, I examined the role of ESD in strengthening inclusive education in teacher education. The SST programme encouraged teacher educators in southern Africa to champion ESD practices while focusing on their contextual issues such as inclusivity. Focusing on two Change Projects from Malawi and Eswatini I used Vygotsky's sociocultural learning theory to explore opportunities for inclusivity that emerged from the SST programme. This examination led to strategies for maximising these opportunities in educational institutions and broader national contexts. Methodologically, this study involved interviews and workshops in the two selected Change Projects. The findings suggest that enrolling future teachers with disabilities in teacher education is essential for exemplifying an inclusive educational trajectory in schools. The Change Projects enabled teacher educators to work with ESD practices in developing inclusivity proficiencies in future teachers and ongoing efforts are needed to strengthen inclusive education in teacher education through ESD.