Peccary Populations Research Articles

Comparison of hair capture methods for monitoring peccary populations

Comparison of hair capture methods for monitoring peccary populations

Habitat use and activity patterns of ungulates in a tropical rainforest of southern México

Baird’s tapir (Tapirella bairdii), white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), and collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) sympatrically occur in the Lacandon Forest of Chiapas, México. These species contribute to maintain ecosystem dynamics through herbivory, seed dispersal, and seed predation, constituting important prey for large carnivores and hunters. We analyzed activity patterns and habitat use of the three focal species to assess the degree of temporal and spatial habitat segregation among them in Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (REBIMA) and surrounding communities. Between February and October 2015 we deployed camera-traps during 8,463 camera-trap days to estimate the presence and activity of tapirs and peccaries in two habitat types: “conserved” (REBIMA), and “transformed” (community forests; AFC). Habitat use and activity patterns of tapirs and peccaries were assessed through logistic regression models. We found that Baird’s tapir was almost exclusively nocturnal with a trend towards crepuscular activity, while both peccary species were diurnal, therefore showing a high daily temporal segregation from the tapir. Both peccary species were similarly active in the two study sites, while tapirs were more active in continuous forest within the protected area. The occurrence of tapirs and white-lipped peccaries depended on the presence and proximity of water sources and roads. Our results suggest that spatial segregation of the habitat allows coexistence of both peccary species in the study area. AFC have potential for maintaining populations of tapirs and peccaries in the Lacandon Forest. Conserving these forests by local communities is essential to ensure the persistence of these mammals.

Dietary expansion facilitates the persistence of a large frugivore in fragmented tropical forests

AbstractHow species persist in fragmented habitats is essential to understanding species resilience in response to increasing anthropogenic pressures. It has been suggested that expansion in dietary niche allows populations to persist in human‐modified landscapes, yet this hypothesis has been poorly tested in highly diverse ecosystems such as tropical forests where frugivory is ubiquitous. Here, we measured dietary niche expansion of a large forest‐dwelling mammal, the white‐lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil, by comparing its diet using stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes. We collected hair of white‐lipped peccaries in three continuous and three fragmented forests and compared δ13C and δ15N values, resource use and isotopic niches among populations and between forest types. We also tested the relationship between isotopic values of the populations and the forest cover percentage. White‐lipped peccaries fed mainly on forest sources (C3 resources), especially in continuous forests, but 28% of the individuals in fragmented sites also incorporated C4 resources to some extent. In fragmented forests, the populations had isotopic niches from 3‐ to 3.6‐fold the size of those in continuous forests. This niche expansion was due to the consumption of food items with higher δ15N values and C4 crops. Differences among populations were larger among fragmented forests, suggesting variable site‐specific strategies to cope with habitat loss. The mean isotopic values of white‐lipped peccary populations were negatively correlated with the loss of forest cover. Some small forest fragments might still retain relatively high habitat quality, and white‐lipped peccaries might be able to capitalize on such variety of resources, shifting their diets from those observed in continuous forests. We suggest that high dietary flexibility and dietary expansion toward consumption of non‐forest resources might facilitate the persistence of large frugivores in fragmented habitats.

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) infection in captive white-collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) from Uruguay.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is a major cause of acute hepatitis worldwide. Clinical presentation of hepatitis E mainly occurs as an acute and self-limited disease, though chronic cases are now being commonly reported in immunocompromised individuals. In high-income developed areas and non-endemic regions, HEV is mainly transmitted by the zoonotic route through direct contact with infected animals or by consumption of contaminated meat products. Although pigs and wild boars are the main reservoirs of the disease, HEV can also infect deer, camels, and rats and seems to have an ever-expanding host range. Peccaries (Tayassuidae family, superfamily Suoidea), the 'new world pigs', share susceptibility to several pathogens with domestic pigs and wild boars. Herein, we performed a serological and molecular survey of two captive populations of white-collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) from Uruguay, with the aim to assess the role of the species as an HEV reservoir. One-hundred and one serum samples were analysed for anti-HEV antibodies. Further evidences of active HEV infection were investigated in stool by RT-nested PCR. Animals from both wildlife reserves were exposed to HEV with an overall prevalence of 24.7%. Moreover, HEV RNA could be detected in peccaries' stool samples from one of the reserves. Phylogenetic analysis clustered the strains within HEV-3, closely related to both human and swine isolates. Our work provides the first evidences supporting the notion that white-collared peccaries are susceptible to HEV. However, these data should not be overinterpreted. Further research is needed concerning the role of peccaries in the transmission of HEV.

Precipitous decline of white-lipped peccary populations in Mesoamerica

Large mammalian herbivores are experiencing population reductions and range declines. However, we lack regional knowledge of population status for many herbivores, particularly in developing countries. Addressing this knowledge gap is key to implementing tailored conservation strategies for species whose population declines are highly variable across their range. White-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) are important ecosystem engineers in Neotropical forests and are highly sensitive to human disturbance. Despite maintaining a wide distributional range, white-lipped peccaries are experiencing substantial population declines in some portions of their range. We examined the regional distribution and population status of the species in Mesoamerica. We used a combination of techniques, including expert-based mapping and assessment of population status, and data-driven distribution modelling techniques to determine the status and range limits of white-lipped peccaries. Our analysis revealed declining and highly isolated populations of peccaries across Mesoamerica, with a range reduction of 87% from historic distribution and 63% from current IUCN range estimates for the region. White-lipped peccary distribution is affected by indices of human influence and forest cover, and more restricted than other sympatric large herbivores, with their largest populations confined to transboundary reserves. To conserve white-lipped peccaries in Mesoamerica, transboundary efforts will be needed that focus on both forest conservation and hunting management, increased cross-border coordination, and reconsideration of country and regional conservation priorities. Our methodology to detail regional white-lipped peccary status could be employed on other poorly-known large mammals.

Seasonal denning behavior and population dynamics of the late Pleistocene peccary Platygonus compressus (Artiodactyla: Tayassuidae) from Bat Cave, Missouri.

The late Pleistocene faunal assemblage from Bat Cave, central Ozarks, Missouri provides an opportunity to assess specific aspects of behavior, ecology, and ontogeny of the Rancholabrean species Platygonus compressus. All identifiable elements referable to this taxon were catalogued and examined, and a minimum number of individuals of 73 was determined for the sample. Evidence of seasonal behavioral patterns are reported for the first time in a fossil peccary. Maturation of individuals was assessed using the tooth eruption sequence and occlusal wear patterns for all tooth-bearing mandibular elements and isolated lower dentition. Approximate ages were established through comparison with the extant collared peccary. The presence of distinct, developmentally non-overlapping age groups suggests that P. compressus was seasonally present at the Bat Cave locality, with the cave functioning as seasonal shelter in which individuals would occasionally die. The study also suggests the peccaries engaged in synchronous, seasonal breeding behaviors. Demographic assessment of the Bat Cave peccary population suggests that younger individuals formed the bulk of the population at a given time with progressively older individuals becoming scarcer until the age of about 10 years, which matches the typical demographic patterns and life expectancy of extant peccaries.

The paradoxical situation of the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil

Populations of white-lipped peccaries, Tayassu pecari, have already been extirpated or drastically reduced in much of the Neotropics, but are still relatively abundant in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso, the country's largest maize and soy producer. This article synthesises over a decade of experience both visiting farms which experienced crop damage and working with hunters, farmers and technicians who live in areas of conflict with T. pecari. These social ungulates feed within maize plantations bordering forest fragments during the entire cultivation cycle and farmers in Mato Grosso vociferously protest the severe economic losses they cause. To protect their crops from damage, farmers slaughter white-lipped peccaries using firearms, traps and mass poisoning. We also draw attention to the need to mitigate the damage caused in agricultural frontiers by this ecologically important species, such that it is not decimated as it has been in the Caatinga and Atlantic Forest biomes.

Using activity and occupancy to evaluate niche partitioning: the case of two peccary species in the Atlantic Rainforest, Brazil.

Collared and white-lipped peccaries (Pecari tajacu and Tayassu pecari, respectively) are widely distributed, herd-forming ungulates that are sympatric in a variety of Neotropical ecosystems. Patterns of co-occurrence and niche partitioning are still poorly understood in sympatric peccary populations in the Atlantic Forest. We aimed to test the hypothesis that the collared and white-lipped peccary avoided each other by some degree of niche partitioning in the Vale Natural Reserve, Espirito Santo state, southeastern Brazil. Species-specific occupancy, detection, and activity patterns were estimated from camera-trap data collected at 39 sample sites over a 1-year period. We found that both peccary species respond to similar habitat covariates (palm density, distance to water resources, poaching intensity). We also quantified the probability of co-occurrence, or the Species Interaction Factor (SIF), using a two-species occupancy modelling approach. We found that the two species avoided each other in space (SIF=0.410.02), thus providing evidence for niche partitioning. Specifically, occupancy of the collared peccary was significantly lower at sites occupied by the white-lipped peccary (yBA=0.240.08) when compared to sites unoccupied by the whitelipped peccary (yBa=0.800.05). We also found weak evidence for temporal niche partitioning, with the white-lipped peccary being more restricted to diurnal hours. Our results contribute to our knowledge of species ecology and the potential mechanisms of coexistence for peccary species in the Vale Natural Reserve.

SEROLOGIC SURVEY FOR SELECTED VIRAL AND BACTERIAL SWINE PATHOGENS IN COLOMBIAN COLLARED PECCARIES ( PECARI TAJACU) AND FERAL PIGS ( SUS SCROFA).

In South America, wild populations of peccaries coexist with domestic and feral pigs, with poorly understood consequences. We captured 58 collared peccaries ( Pecari tajacu) and 15 feral pigs ( Sus scrofa) in locations of Colombia where coexistence of these species is known. Blood samples were tested for antibodies against four viral agents, classical swine fever virus (CSFV), Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV), porcine circovirus (PCV-2), and vesicular stomatitis virus (New Jersey and Indiana subtypes) and two bacterial agents, Brucella spp. and six serovars of Leptospira interrogans. The prevalence of CSFV was 5% (3/58) in collared peccaries and 7% (1/15) in feral pigs. The prevalence of PCV-2 was 7% (1/15) in collared peccaries and 67% (2/3) in feral pigs. Vesicular stomatitis prevalence was 33% (8/24) in collared peccaries and 67% (4/6) in feral pigs. Leptospira prevalence was 78% (39/50) in collared peccary and 100% (8/8) in feral pigs; bratislava, grippotyphosa, icterohaemorrhagiae, and pomona were the most frequent serovars. Also, the only white-lipped peccary ( Tayassu pecari) sampled was positive for L. interrogans serovar bratislava and for vesicular stomatitis virus, New Jersey strain. No samples were positive for ADV or Brucella. The seroprevalence of antibodies against L. interrogans was similar to that observed in other studies. Icterohaemorrhagiae appears to be a common serovar among in situ and ex situ peccary populations. Positive antibodies against PVC-2 represent a novel report of exposure to this pathogen in Colombian peccaries. Our results indicate the possible transmission of various pathogens, important for pig farms, in the studied pig and peccaries.

Niche centrality and human influence predict rangewide variation in population abundance of a widespread mammal: The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu)

AbstractAim(1) To evaluate whether geographic variation in population abundance of a widespread mammal (Pecari tajacu) is related to its location with respect to the centroid of its ecological niche or to the centroid of its geographic range. (2) To assess whether the abundance–niche centrality relationship defines the maximum expected abundance at any location, rather than the realized abundance. (3) To test whether including human impacts improves the abundance–niche centrality relationship, and therefore the prediction of geographic variation in population abundance.LocationThe Americas.MethodsWe modelled the ecological niche of the species using occurrence and environmental data and created spatial models of distance to the niche centroid (DNC) and to the geographic centroid (DGC). We tested the relationships between population abundance andDNCand between abundance andDGC. We evaluated whether the rate of change in the abundance–DNCrelationship was steeper near the upper boundary of quantile regressions. We tested whether the human influence index (HII) contributed to improve niche‐based predictions of population abundance. Finally, we generated broad‐scale predictions of collared peccary population abundances.ResultsWe found a negative relationship between abundance andDNCand a non‐significant relationship between abundance andDGC. The abundance–DNCrelationship was wedge‐shaped, steeper in the upper quantile boundary than in the median.HIIalso had a negative effect on abundance. The model includingDNCandHIIwas best supported for predicting the median abundance, whileDNCalone was the best to predict the upper boundary of population abundances.Main conclusionsPopulation abundances are associated with the structure of the ecological niche, especially the maximum abundance expected in an area. Thus, theDNCapproach can be useful in obtaining a spatial approximation of potential abundance patterns at biogeographic extents. To achieve a better prediction of realized abundances, it is critical to consider the human influence.

White-lipped peccaries are recorded at Iguaçu National Park after 20 years

AbstractThe white-lipped peccary (WLP) is the most endangered ungulate in the Neotropics. In the recent years, this species has undergone a large reduction in range size and experienced the loss of several populations. An emblematic case was the local extinction of this species from the Iguaçu National Park (INP) in the mid-1990s. After the report of this particular WLP disappearance, surveys conducted along the 2000s confirmed its absence in the park. However, in 2016, after 20 years of previous reports, we obtained five records of WLP herds, indicating a possible population recovery probably resulting from emigration. To effectively re-establish white-lipped peccary population and, consequently, restore its ecological role, urgent practical conservation measures are necessary.

Age structure of the Vulnerable white-lipped peccaryTayassu pecariin areas under different levels of hunting pressure in the Amazon Forest

AbstractSubsistence hunting can change the demographic structure of wild mammal populations, increasing the proportion of young animals, inducing females to reproduce early and increasing litter sizes. We examined the relationship between hunting pressure and age structure in the Vulnerable white-lipped peccaryTayassu pecari, analysing the distribution of age classes at seven sites in the region Terra do Meio in the Brazilian Amazon. These sites differ in the number of human inhabitants and hence were subject to differing hunting pressures. We completed semi-structured interviews with local people to assess the importance of hunting and of the white-lipped peccary as food. We also estimated the age of hunted white-lipped peccaries by assessing tooth eruption and tooth wear in skulls of hunted individuals. Our results indicated that the white-lipped peccary was the most frequently hunted terrestrial animal in the region. Fishing, followed by hunting, provided the main sources of animal protein. Our data suggest there is no relationship between age structure and hunting at the study sites. The social structure and mobility of white-lipped peccaries seem to minimize the effects of hunting on age structure. Our results, similar to previous studies, show that the age structure of the white-lipped peccary is robust to hunting impacts. Other factors may have stronger effects on age structure than subsistence hunting. We suggest that deforestation may explain the prevalence of older individuals in peccary populations to the north of our study sites.

Long-term fluctuations of white-lipped peccary populations in French Guiana

The white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) is a large ungulate species with an extensive distribution across South and Central America. As such, it is a key game species for forest communities throughout its range. It is also considered an “ecosystem engineer”, having a significant impact on forest structure and function. The species has recently been upgraded to “vulnerable” owing to decreasing population trends. Many studies report evidence of strong population fluctuations, but data are lacking from long-term surveys. Our study documents population fluctuations in French Guiana based on both line transect and hunting monitoring in hundreds of sites across the country, over 15 consecutive years. Our results show that white-lipped peccary populations drastically decreased in French Guiana between 2000 and 2010, and that low-density periods have repeatedly occurred during the past decades. White-lipped peccaries were absent from the Nouragues Reserve during 4 years of camera trapping monitoring (2006–2010) and probably from most of the country. However, more recent data suggest that the species is becoming more common again in French Guiana, supporting the hypothesis of cyclic population fluctuations.

Group dynamics, behavior, and current and historical abundance of peccaries in Costa Rica's Caribbean lowlands

The abundances and habitat preferences of peccaries in Neotropical forests are important to understand because these keystone species influence many aspects of the ecosystem. In the Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica, we conducted walking surveys for ~2 years to study the behavior and population trends of collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu), and found that peccaries are abundant at La Selva Biological Station and overall, detection rates were relatively constant through time. A stable estimate of detection rates was achieved only after 7–9 months of surveying. We found no habitat preferences between primary and secondary forest, yet there were some differences in group dynamics—group radius was larger and sighting distance was greater in primary forest, whereas the number of singletons was higher in secondary forest. More peccaries were seen closer to the laboratory clearing than at greater distances, for a variety of probable reasons: habituation to humans, lower predation and hunting pressure, and various environmental and habitat factors. Peccary groups had spatially clumped distributions across the landscape and were more active diurnally than nocturnally. Collared peccary densities are relatively high at La Selva compared to other Neotropical sites, with the exception of Barro Colorado Island. We combined our data with a review of the historical literature to assess changes in the populations of peccaries in the Caribbean lowlands. We found that collared peccaries have likely increased in abundance at La Selva, seemingly a few years after the extirpation of white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari), which were abundant in the area 40–50 years ago. An understanding of the group dynamics, behavior, and habitat preference of collared peccaries is essential for management decisions and conservation efforts. Additionally, assessment of population changes should be carefully considered in a historical context, with a particular focus on how the populations of the 2 peccary species have changed, and how these species might differentially affect their environment.

Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci for white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) and cross-amplification in collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu)

White-lipped peccaries, Tayassu pecari, are neotropical ungulates whose populations have been declining in numerous locations within their geographical distribution. Here we describe 16 microsatellite loci isolated from T. pecari and their cross-amplification in collared peccaries, Pecari tajacu. In 30 individuals of T. pecari, a total of 32 alleles were found in ten polymorphic loci, ranging from 2 to 8 alleles per locus with a mean of 3.2. The expected and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.143 to 0.802 and from 0 to 0.704, respectively. Two loci deviated from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. In P. tajacu, nine loci were polymorphic with a mean of 3.2 alleles per locus. These molecular markers will be useful to study the genetic status of peccary populations and, consequently, to help their conservation.

Hunting and the conservation of a social ungulate: the white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari in Calakmul, Mexico

The white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari is a social ungulate that forms the largest groups documented for any tropical forest ungulate species. Since the 1950s the species has become increasingly rare in Mesoamerica, and the more frequent reporting of smaller groups may be related to increased hunting pressure. Here we address the conservation status of this species in terms of its group size and structure, breeding season, population density, and relationship with hunting patterns in the Calakmul region of southern Mexico. Group sizes, age structure and breeding season were recorded in one large non-hunted site (Calakmul Biosphere Reserve) and four adjacent hunted sites. Population density was estimated in the Reserve and hunting patterns were recorded from three adjacent villages. Results indicate that hunting pressure affects peccary populations by reducing group size. White-lipped peccary groups were larger in the Reserve (median = 25) than in the hunted areas (median = 16) but groups were generally smaller than those reported in other forests. These smaller group sizes indicate conservation concern for this species in the Calakmul region. In addition, the estimated population (0.43 km2) is one of the lowest reported for this species. Hunting occurs mainly in the dry season, which is the peak of the breeding season and when peccary groups visit water bodies, where they are more easily hunted.

Reproductive performance of the wild white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) female in the Peruvian Amazon

The ability of any species to support high hunting pressures depends on its reproductive efficiency. Based on the gross anatomic examination of 208 adult female reproductive tracts, we characterised the reproductive biology of the wild white-lipped peccary in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. White-lipped peccary apparently bred year round in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon, and the number of pregnant females was 80 (38.4%). Mean ovulation rate was 2.09 ± 0.47 CLs, and litter size was 1.60 ± 0.49 embryos or foetuses per pregnant female. A phenomenon of embryo migration was observed in the 27.5% of pregnant females. Estimations suggest 0.89 births per year and a yearly reproductive production of 1.42 piglets per pregnant female. Females in the late pregnancy stage showed a higher hunting vulnerability that could be an important restrictive factor for the reproductive efficiency of the wild white-lipped peccary populations in the Peruvian Amazon.

Importance of rare habitats and riparian zones in a tropical forest fragment: preferential use by Tayassu pecari, a wide‐ranging frugivore

AbstractIn forest fragments, rare habitats contribute to heterogeneity and may provide unique resources for frugivorous species like peccaries with spatially and temporally complex patterns of range use. This study examined seasonal habitat use by two sympatric peccary species (Tayassu pecari and Tayassu tajacu) in an Atlantic forest fragment on the plateau region of São Paulo state, Brazil. Previous studies showed that range use by T. pecari was highly nonrandom, and that both species persisted at population densities typical of larger forest fragments. To explain this, we quantified the use and availability of habitats and riparian zones with compositional analysis. Use by T. pecari was nonrandom with respect to availability. Habitat preferences were different during dry and wet seasons and corresponded closely with seasonal movements, core range and fruit use. Although aquatic habitats made up a small proportion of the herd home range, they were most preferred by T. pecari during both seasons. Headwater palmito Euterpe edulis swamps were most favored in the dry season, whereas swamps and marshes near larger streams were preferred in the wet season. Tayassu pecari preferred riparian zones <50 m from streams over drier zones. These habitats were important sources of fruits, travel routes and corridors between forest patches in the agricultural matrix. The least‐preferred habitat of T. pecari during both seasons was disturbed forest edge dominated by bamboo. Habitat and riparian zone use were herd‐specific for T. tajacu and related to habitat quality and composition where stable home ranges had been established. The persistence of viable peccary populations after 75 years of fragmentation‐associated pressures is related to preservation of rare habitats and overall habitat diversity. Thus, T. pecari is an indicator of high habitat diversity in forest fragments and will function as an umbrella species when targeted for conservation.

Fruit Availability and Peccary Frugivory in an Isolated Atlantic Forest Fragment: Effects on Peccary Ranging Behavior and Habitat Use

ABSTRACTThe goal of this study was to examine seasonal frugivory by two sympatric peccary species (Tayassu pecari and T. tajacu) in a small (2178 ha), Atlantic Forest fragment on the inland plateau region of São Paulo State, Brazil. Fruit availability was determined with systematic ground surveys conducted over a 5‐yr period. Examining fruit availability trends for dry and wet seasons, we found that species diversity was greater in the wet season, but the total number and dry mass of fruits were higher in the dry season. Fruit abundance in the dry season was due to one palm, ‘jeriva’ (Syagrus romanzoffiana), which could be considered a keystone species at Caetetus Ecological Station as it also supported a diverse array of mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. White‐lipped peccaries were the only ungulates that ate palmito fruits (Euterpe edulis) at Caetetus. They consumed ripe and unripe fruits and predated the seeds by chewing the pulp and seed. This occurred primarily during the dry season and was associated with a seasonal range shift and a preference for palmito habitat by the white‐lipped peccaries. The dominance of fruits in peccary diets (80% fruit items in scat) has management implications for other plateau forest fragments. Forest fragments with diminished fruit abundance or diversity, or lacking key species such as S. romanzoffiana or E. edulis, will not support the energetic requirements of the characteristically large and highly mobile white‐lipped peccary populations.

Source–sink systems and conservation of hunted ungulates in the Lacandon Forest, Mexico

Native ungulate species constitute an important source of protein for Mesoamerican subsistence hunters. In this study, we (1) provide evidence supporting the hypothesis that source–sink systems help maintain some of the ungulate populations in the Lacandon Forest, Mexico; and (2) test the assumptions that density, age structure, and sex ratios are different in slightly hunted (potential sources) and persistently hunted (potential sinks) populations. From May 1998 to March 2001 we observed 1144 individuals and 1153 tracks of five ungulate species (Baird’s tapir, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, red brocket deer, and white-tailed deer) along 1908 km of line transects in slightly and persistently hunted sites of Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (MABR) and adjacent community lands. Densities of Baird’s tapir and white-lipped peccary were lower in persistently hunted sites, where there were higher proportions of young tapirs and white-tailed deer. The sustainability of hunting was evaluated in five communities using information on harvest rates, production rates, and density of each population. Our results suggest that persistently hunted populations of Baird’s tapir and white-lipped peccary are at risk of local extinction, while collared peccary hunting appears to be sustainable. The red brocket deer, although locally overhunted, maintains a relatively safe status probably through a source–sink system in which MABR functions as the source of individuals which are readily hunted in adjacent community lands. Source–sink systems may be also important in maintaining Baird’s tapir and white-lipped peccary populations outside protected areas of the Lacandon Forest, from evidence of migration observed during this study.