Pearlite Transformation Research Articles

Effects of Nb Solute and Precipitates on the Continuous Cooling and Isothermal Transformation of Pearlite in High‐Carbon Steel Wire Rods

To investigate the influence mechanism of Nb solute and precipitates on pearlite transformation, the effects of Nb content and heat‐treatment process on pearlite transformation and microstructure in high‐carbon steel wire rods are analyzed in this article. During the austenite deformation stage, the increase in solute Nb and strain‐induced precipitates (SIPs) suppresses austenite recrystallization, while the decrease in prior austenite grain size promotes the reduction of refined pearlite colonies size. During the continuous cooling transformation process, an increase in Nb content and cooling rate increases the supercooling of pearlite transformation and refines the interlamellar spacing (ILS) of pearlite. During the isothermal transformation process, the increase in isothermal temperature increases the incubation period of pearlite transformation and slows down the rate of pearlite transformation. With the increase in Nb content, the incubation period of pearlite transformation lengthens. But uneven distribution of C in austenite is caused by the SIP, which promotes interface migration, and shorts the pearlite transformation time. In high‐carbon steel wire rods, the refinement of pearlite colonies and pearlite ILS is achieved by increasing the Nb content, raising the cooling rate, and lowering the isothermal temperature, thereby increasing the content of precipitates and improving their mechanical properties.

Microstructure development by the application of different strain paths prior to soft annealing in a medium carbon steel

The effect of different pre-strain application paths on the microstructure evolution of a medium carbon steel after soft annealing is studied. The strain applied on an undercooled austenite induces fine ferrite and pearlite transformation at austenite grain boundaries leading to an average grain size much finer than that in the case where no pre-strain is applied (around 4 and 7 µm, respectively) and a drastic reduction of the fraction of large grains (>20 µm) that become the 17% rather than the 40%. Cementite direct precipitation at the induced ferrite α/α interface and the induced pearlite quick decomposition, give rise to an improved degree of spheroidisation after annealing and a L2 IFI rating regarding the ASTM F2282 standard. When the strain is applied on pearlite, diffusion through the matrix is enhanced which accelerates the lamellae break-up and leads to fully spheroidised microstructures after annealing (degree of spheroidisation above 90% and G1 on IFI rating). When both strain sequences are applied consecutively, the resulting annealed microstructure combines the features corresponding to each individual strain paths, i.e., homogeneous and refined ferrite grain size and enhanced spheroidisation degree, which confers optimal cold workability properties to the steel. In addition, such characteristics are attained without an excessive increase in hardness (in the range 155–180 HV), which is interesting when considering cold forming tool wear.

Enhancing strength and toughness in a pearlitic rail steel via multi-alloying and accelerated cooling

The demand for higher speeds and heavier loads has emphasized the necessity to tackle the inherent trade-off between strength and toughness in pearlitic rail steels. Herein, the co-additions of Cr, Ni and Cu and accelerated cooling rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a medium carbon pearlitic steel were systematically investigated. In comparison with base alloy, the new steel exhibits smaller prior austenite grain size (PAGS) due to the drag effect of Cu and Ni solutes. The finer PAGS and lower C content increased the volume fraction of proeutectoid ferrite. The finer pearlitic nodule size (PNS) and pearlitic colony size (PCS) were attributed to the small PAGS and greater extent of undercooling due to the combined effect of multi-alloying and accelerated cooling. Additionally, the synergistic effects of multi-alloying and accelerated cooling rate decrease the pearlitic phase transformation temperature, accountable for the finer interlamellar spacing (IS). Compared with the base steel, the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the new steel increased from 587 MPa and 1069 MPa to 740MPa and 1178MPa, respectively, with a simultaneous increase of ductility from 12.4% to 14.7%. The strength increments are mainly attributed to the finer IS in the new steel. Meanwhile, the new steel possesses a higher impact toughness compared to the base steel due to the increased volume fraction of proeutectoid ferrite, and finer PNS and IS.

Continuous cooling transformation in micro-alloyed medium-carbon steel and optimization of the forging process for half-shaft production

Abstract Micro-alloyed medium-carbon steel is increasingly used as a cost-effective alternative to quenched and tempered steel in the production of half-shaft components. Current research emphasizes controlling the microstructure during thermomechanical processing to achieve the desired structural properties after cooling. This study investigated the effect of continuous cooling transformation on the microstructure and mechanical properties of micro-alloyed medium-carbon steel. At a cooling rate of 0.5 °C s−1, only pearlite transformation occurred. At rates between 1 °C s−1 and 8 °C s−1, both bainite and martensite transformations were observed, while only martensite formed at rates exceeding 12 °C s−1. Subsequently, a four-factor, three-level orthogonal experiment was designed based on the actual production process for half shafts. The optimal forging parameters were identified as a heating temperature of 1000 °C, a deformation temperature of 920 °C, a deformation extent of 15%, and a cooling rate of 0.5 °C s−1. The study offered solutions to enhance microstructural uniformity and effectively manage abnormal bainite and martensite formations, thereby establishing a foundation for the high-quality application of micro-alloyed medium-carbon steel in half-shaft components.

Effect of Initial Intergranular Ferrite Size on Induction Hardening Microstructure of Microalloyed Steel 38MnVS6

In this study, we investigated the effect of grain size of an initial microstructure (pearlite + ferrite) on a resulting microstructure of induction-hardened microalloyed steel 38MnVS6, which is one topical medium carbon vanadium microalloyed non-quenched and tempered steel used in manufacturing crankshafts for high-power engines. The results show that a coarse initial microstructure could contribute to the incomplete transformation of pearlite + ferrite into austenite in reaustenitization transformation by rapid heating, and the undissolved ferrite remains and locates between the neighboring prior austenite grains after the induction-hardening process. As the coarseness level of the initial microstructure increases from 102 μm to 156 μm, the morphology of undissolved ferrite varies as granule, film, semi-network, and network, in sequence. The undissolved ferrite structures have a thickness of 250–500 nm and appear dark under an optical metallographic view field. To achieve better engineering applications, it is not recommended to eliminate the undissolved ferrite by increasing much heating time for samples with coarser initial microstructures. It is better to achieve a fine original microstructure before the induction-hardening process. For example, microalloying addition of vanadium and titanium plays a role of metallurgical grain refinement via intragranular ferrite nucleation on more sites, and the heating temperature and time of the forging process should be strictly controlled to ensure the existence of fine prior austenite grains before subsequent isothermal phase transformation to pearlite + ferrite.

An integrated exploration from microstructure to mechanics in austenite to pearlite transformation of high carbon steel under high magnetic fields

The effects of a high magnetic field (12 T) on the microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of high carbon steel during isothermal pearlitic transformation at 720 °C were investigated. The application of a high magnetic field effectively promotes pearlitic transformation and leads to a reduction in the lamellar spacing and the geometrically necessary dislocation density (GND) as well as to a slight increase in the grain size of the pearlite, which leads to a decrease in hardness. This is because the magnetic field reduces the magnetic Gibbs energy of ferrite and cementite, resulting in an increase in the driving force of phase transformation, which shortens the pearlite maturation time and reduces the nucleation barriers of pearlite, thereby accelerating the growth rate of pearlite. In addition, the interfacial energy of ferrite/cementite was found to be increased by the magnetic field from the thermodynamic point of view, and the mechanism of action of the magnetic field -induced precipitation of cementite in the form of particles and short rods was elucidated. The present work will enhance the understanding of the mechanism of magnetic field-induced phase transformation in iron-based materials.

Pearlite Growth Kinetics in Fe-C-Mn Eutectoid Steels: Quantitative Evaluation of Energy Dissipation at Pearlite Growth Front Via Experimental Approaches

Essential understanding of the pearlite growth kinetics is of great significance to predict the lamellar spacing and the resultant mechanical properties of pearlitic steels. In this study, a series of eutectoid steels with Mn addition up to 2 mass pct were isothermally transformed at various temperatures from 873 K to 973 K to clarify the pearlite growth kinetics and the underlying thermodynamics at its growth front. The microscopic observation indicates the acceleration in pearlite growth rate and refinement in lamellar spacing by decreasing the transformation temperature or the amount of Mn addition. After analyzing the solute distribution at pearlite growth front via three-dimensional atom probe, no macroscopic Mn partitioning across pearlite/austenite interface is detected, whereas Mn segregation is only observed at ferrite/austenite interface. Furthermore, in-situ neutron diffraction measurements performed at elevated temperatures reveal that the magnitude of elastic strain generated during pearlite transformation is very small. Based on the thermodynamic model, these experimental results are used to estimate the contribution of various factors to the total energy dissipation. Compared with the Mn-free alloy, the retardation effect of Mn addition on pearlite growth kinetics, which is partly due to the reduced driving force for pearlite growth, can be well explained by further considering the solute drag effect of Mn.

Influence of the Isothermal Transformation Temperature on the Structure and Properties of Low-Carbon Steel

Purpose. The study is aimed at evaluating the effect of the isothermal transformation temperature on the structure and properties of low-carbon steel. Methodology. The material for the study was a 3 mm diameter wire made of mild steel with the following chemical composition: 0.21% C, 0.47% Mn, 1.2% Si, 0.1% Cr, 0.03% S, 0.012% P. The 0.3 m long wire samples were subjected to austenitizing at 920 °C for 8...9 min, after which they were held isothermally for 11 min at temperatures of 650...200 °C, followed by cooling in air. The strength, plastic properties, and strain hardening coefficient were determined from the analysis of tensile curves. Findings. It was found that a decrease in the temperature of isothermal transformation, starting from 450...400 °C, increases the amount of Widmannstätten ferrite due to the disappearance of polyhedral ferrite grains. At the same time, the number of areas with locally located dispersed cementite particles similar to pearlite colonies increases, and bainite crystals appear. Against the background of a sharp decrease in the strain hardening coefficient in the range of 450...400 °C, the ability of the bainite phase to undergo plastic deformation should be considered one of the reasons for the delay in density reduction. Originality. The effect of steel hardening with a decrease in the pearlite transformation temperature is based on the grinding of ferrite grains, an increase in the amount of Widmannstätten ferrite, and the dispersion of pearlite colonies. The strengthening effect of steel with a bainite structure is based on an increase in the degree of supersaturation of the solid solution with carbon atoms and dispersion hardening by particles of the carbide phase. Practical value. The optimal structural state of steel intended for the manufacture of such critical elements as a support beam, railroad car bogie, etc. is a mixture of phase components with different dispersion and morphology, and their quantitative ratio is determined by the operating conditions of a particular product.

Characterizing pearlite transformation in an API X60 pipeline steel through phase-field modeling and experimental validation

This study explores the microstructural characterization of pearlite phase transformation in high-strength low-alloy API X60 steel, which is used in pipelines. Understanding the formation, phase percentages, and morphology of the pearlitic phase is crucial since it affects the mechanical properties of the considered steel. In this research, a phase-field model, particularly the Cahn–Hilliard approach, was used in order to simulate the formation and morphology of the pearlite phase in response to different heat treatments. Both double- and triple-well potentials were considered for comprehensively studying pearlite’s morphology in the simulations. The simulation results were then compared with experimental outcomes obtained by metallography and field-emission scanning electron microscopy analyses. Considering the double-well potential can help simulate only two phases, ferrite and cementite, which is less compatible with the experiment results than the triple-well potential, which gives the possibility of simulating a three-phase microstructure, ferrite, cementite, and austenite, and a better match with experimental data. The study revealed that as the cooling rate increases, the interlamellar spacing and layer thickness decrease. Additionally, the difference between experimental and simulation results using triple-well potential was approximately ∼10%. Therefore, triple-well potential formulation predictions have better agreements with experimental results for the development circumstance of pearlitic structures.

Tailoring microstructure and mechanical properties of U75V steel manufactured by laser direct energy deposition combining cobalt addition with preheating treatment

Laser direct energy deposition (LDED) exhibits great potential for application in rail repairing due to its low cost and high process automation. However, the martensite transformation accompanied by rapid solidification leads to the decrease in the mechanical properties and threatens the service safety. In this study, the reinforcement strategy of combining cobalt (Co) addition with preheating treatment was investigated systematically by combining thermodynamic calculations with experimental characterization to optimize the microstructure and mechanical properties of U75V steel by LDED. The results indicate that cobalt addition can promote the pearlite percentage by facilitating the leftward shift of the continuous cooling transformation (CCT) curve, and refining the interlamellar spacing. But the martensite start (Ms) temperature will also increase from 206.4 °C to 324.1 °C after 7 wt% Co addition. 350 °C preheating treatment on the substrate can also promote the pearlite transformation by elevating the valley temperature of thermal cycling over Ms, as well as the subsequent decrease in cooling rate, but it is not sufficient to prevent martensite formation. A synergistic reinforcement strategy of 7 wt% Co addition and 350 °C preheating was established, which can effectively suppress the occurrence of martensite in the bottom area of deposition layers and expand the pearlite range in the top area. The bonding strength between the substrate and deposition layers has been elevated by ∼20%, accompanied by the increase in elongation and wear resistance. A mixed mode of adhesive and abrasive wear has transformed into a mode dominated by adhesive wear after optimization.

Effect of Nb content and cooling rate on the microstructure transformation and mechanical properties of hot-rolled rebar

In this study, the synergistic effect of the Nb content and cooling rate on the microstructural transformation, precipitation behavior, and mechanical properties of hot-rolled rebar was studied using a Gleeble-3800 thermal simulation machine, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and a universal tensile testing machine. The results showed that the synergistic effect of Nb content and cooling rate could optimize the microstructure and precipitation behavior of rebar, promote ferrite and pearlite transformation, and reduce the ferrite grain size, pearlite lamellar spacing, and precipitated phase size, thereby improving the strength and plasticity of Nb-containing rebar. When the cooling rate was 3 °C/s and the Nb content was 0.035 wt%, the ferrite grain size decreased to 21.45 μm, the pearlite lamellar spacing refined to 0.222 μm, and the particle size of the (Nb, Ti, V) C precipitates reduced to 5 nm. Accordingly, the yield and tensile strength increased to 779 ± 6 MPa and 973 ± 8 MPa, respectively, the elongation at fracture increased to 16.35%, and the microhardness increased to 311.39 ± 8.0 HV.

Influence of heating rate and intercritical annealing temperature on the austenite formation of a cold rolled dual‐phase steel

AbstractThis study investigated austenite formation in a cold‐rolled dual‐phase steel through thermal experiments in a dilatometer and a Gleeble machine, applying various intercritical annealing temperatures and different heating rates in a 60 % cold‐rolled ferrite‐pearlite banded microstructure. The microstructural characterization revealed that the transformation of lamellar pearlite into ferrite and spheroidized cementite aggregates started before the onset of austenite formation. Different degrees of overlap between the recrystallization of ferrite‐pearlite structure and austenite formation processes were observed, depending on the applied heating rates, which affected the austenite formation mechanisms and the microstructure morphology.

Effect of Mo and Cr on the Microstructure and Properties of Low-Alloy Wear-Resistant Steels.

Low-alloy wear-resistant steel often requires the addition of trace alloy elements to enhance its performance while also considering the cost-effectiveness of production. In order to comparatively analyze the strengthening mechanisms of Mo and Cr elements and further explore economically feasible production processes, we designed two types of low-alloy wear-resistant steels, based on C-Mn series wear-resistant steels, with individually added Mo and Cr elements, comparing and investigating the roles of the alloying elements Mo and Cr in low-alloy wear-resistant steels. Utilizing JMatPro software to calculate Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) curves, conducting thermal simulation quenching experiments using a Gleeble-3800 thermal simulator, and employing equipment such as a metallographic microscope, transmission electron microscope, and tensile testing machine, this study comparatively investigated the influence of Mo and Cr on the microstructural transformation and mechanical properties of low-alloy wear-resistant steels under different cooling rates. The results indicate that the addition of the Mo element in low-alloy wear-resistant steel can effectively suppress the transformation of ferrite and pearlite, reduce the martensitic transformation temperature, and lower the critical cooling rate for complete martensitic transformation, thereby promoting martensitic transformation. Adding Cr elements can reduce the austenite transformation zone, decrease the rate of austenite formation, and promote the occurrence of low-temperature phase transformation. Additionally, Mo has a better effect on improving the toughness of low-temperature impact, and Cr has a more significant improvement in strength and hardness. The critical cooling rates of C-Mn-Mo steel and C-Mn-Cr steel for complete martensitic transition are 13 °C/s and 24 °C/s, respectively. With the increase in the cooling rate, the martensitic tissues of the two experimental steels gradually refined, and the characteristics of the slats gradually appeared. In comparison, the C-Mn-Mo steel displays a higher dislocation density, accompanied by dislocation entanglement phenomena, and contains a small amount of residual austenite, while granular ε-carbides are clearly precipitated in the C-Mn-Cr steel. The C-Mn-Mo steel achieves its best performance at a cooling rate of 25 °C/s, whereas the C-Mn-Cr steel only needs to increase the cooling rate to 35 °C/s to attain a similar comprehensive performance to the C-Mn-Mo steel.

Improved uniform ductility in a high-carbon pearlitic steel via microstructural homogeneity architecture

In this work, the nucleation and growth kinetics of pearlitic transformation are quantitatively investigated to unveil the distinctive microstructural evolution behavior under a high undercooling degree. Both intra-granular and inter-granular nucleation increasingly occur with 1-2 orders of magnitude increase in nucleation rate N˙. However, a moderate increase in the growth rate GV, namely a larger N˙/GV ratio, leads to a 30%–40% size reduction in pearlitic colonies. The avalanche-type increase in nucleation events induces a more random distribution of ferrite orientation among colonies that possess a slight increase in relative misorientation but a pronounced increase in accumulative misorientation, and an arbitrary alignment of Fe3C lamellas in colony interior. Such improved microstructural homogeneity ensures more uniform and localized deformability, which allows compatible deformation between colonies or within colonies and prevents the expansion of newly-formed cracks. These results provide guidance for industrial manufacture of high-carbon pearlitic products with high safety and reliability, resulting from the improvement in localized deformability, and for low-cost wires via reducing the drawing passes, stemming from the significant increase in uniform deformability.

Effect of Cr–Mo Addition on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Medium‐Carbon Steel

Herein, the effects of Chromium–Molybdenum (Cr–Mo) addition on the microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of medium‐carbon steel after spheroidization annealing are systematically studied through scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and tensile testing. Cr–Mo addition hinders the proeutectoid ferrite + pearlite transformation, thereby promoting the bainite transformation. Moreover, it refines the pearlite lamellar spacing as well as decreases the average carbide diameter, increases the number of carbides per unit area, and hinders ferrite recrystallization. Compared with those in the B1 steel annealed for 8 h, the size of carbides and their number per unit area in the CM1 steel are 30% lower and 2.2‐fold higher, respectively. Due to finer ferrite grains, smaller carbides, and a higher amount of carbides, the strength of steel improves, and the plasticity slightly reduces after Cr–Mo addition. After 2 h of annealing, the yield strengths of Cr–Mo steels are 77.5–109.5 MPa higher than those of base steels; the elongations are above 20%. The contributions of the strengthening mechanism of steel to the yield strength are as follows (from high to low): grain boundary, precipitation, solid solution, and dislocation strengthening.

Experimental and Modeling Study on Austenitizing Process of GCr15 Steel

Abstract The austenitizing process of pearlite during homogenization heat treatment of GCr15 bearing steel was studied using dilatometry. A detailed study was conducted on the relationship between the volume fraction of ferrite, cementite, austenite, and residual cementite during the phase transformation process and the changes in heating temperature and heating rate. An austenizing model for the transformation of pearlite to austenite during homogenization heat treatment was proposed. The interfacial concentration, phase equilibrium, free energy of transformation, and eutectoid temperature between austenite and pearlite were calculated by Thermo-Calc software. The experimental phenomenon of the transition from pearlite to austenite during homogenizing heat treatment was theoretically explained.

Atomic insights into the deformation mechanism of an amorphous wrapped nanolamellar heterostructure and its effect on self-lubrication

The evolution of pearlite into an amorphous wrapped nanolamellar heterostructure (AWNH) within the tribolayer is an important process for the formation and stabilization of a nanocomposite self-lubricating surface. Here, experimental characterizations were performed to show that an AWNH was an intermediate product of transformation of pearlite to oxide nanoparticles and played a supporting role as a self-lubricating layer of the substrate. Furthermore, the molecular dynamics simulation method was used to analyze the wear properties and load-bearing capacities of four different microstructures to reveal the unique AWNH deformation mechanism and its effect on the self-lubrication behavior. The results showed that the AWNH exhibited a low friction and good wear resistance, which could be ascribed to its high hardness, high plasticity, and outstanding interface deformation coordination ability. The shear bands were restricted by the nanolamellar structure, and the shear transition zone that formed at the interfaces caused the plastic deformation to be uniformly distributed, which provided favorable conditions for supporting the self-lubricating layer. The results of this study provide theoretical guidance for analyzing the deformation mechanisms and tribological behaviors of AWNHs and help to optimize self-lubricating material design.

Retracted: In Situ Observation of Phase Transformations of Pearlite Heat‐Resistant Steel during Solidification

The phase transformation of pearlite heat‐resistant steel during solidification is observed using high‐temperature confocal scanning laser microscopy. The precipitation of the δ‐ferrite (δ) phase proceeds in a cellular manner at cooling rates of 5 and 15 °C min−1, whereas precipitation occurs in a dendritic manner at a cooling rate of 100 °C min−1. Furthermore, a change in the solidification path is observed at high cooling rates. When the experimental steel is cooled at a low cooling rate of 5 °C min−1, the sequence of continuous solidification is L → L + δ → L + δ + γ → δ + γ, which is consistent with that of equilibrium. However, when the cooling rate increases to 15 and 100 °C min−1, the sequence of continuous solidification is L → L + δ → L + δ + γ → L + γ→γ. Furthermore, at various cooling rates, the interface of the peritectic transformation of δ → γ presents three different modes: planar and cellular modes controlled by solute diffusion and massive transformation controlled by the processes that occur at the transformation interfaces. The different δ → γ transformation modes and the associated different degrees of volume shrinkage are hypothesized to lead to uneven strand shell growth during continuous casting.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Nb microalloyed high‑carbon pearlitic steels subjected to isothermal transformation

Niobium (Nb) is mainly added to low-carbon steels, in which the main microstructure is ferrite and/or bainite, to refine grains and improve their properties. However, the studies on Nb in high-carbon pearlitic steels are insufficient, and there are some debates regarding the existing studies. High-carbon pearlitic steel is widely used in bars, wires, and steel rails. The role of Nb in high-carbon steels may differ for different steel grades and under different heat treatments. Hence, further detailed studies are required to improve the properties of high-carbon pearlitic steels. In this study, two series of high-carbon pearlitic steels (68C and 75C series) were designed and subjected to isothermal pearlite transformation at different austenitization and isothermal transformation temperatures. The microstructures and mechanical properties of the steels were investigated by optical microscopy, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and hardness tests. The results showed that the pearlite lamellae were refined by the addition of Nb to high-carbon pearlitic steels, which was attributed to the solute drag effect of Nb. The pearlite colony and nodule sizes also became finer with the addition of Nb because of the finer prior austenite grains and smaller pearlite growth rates. However, the refinement of the pearlite lamellae, nodules, and colonies by the addition of Nb was not significantly enhanced by increasing the Nb content from 0.014 wt% to 0.027 wt% in 75C series samples. In addition, the pearlite interlamellar spacing and colony and nodule sizes of the samples decreased with decreasing isothermal and austenitization temperatures. Moreover, the addition of Nb to high-carbon steels increased their hardness and yield strength. The main strengthening mechanisms of Nb in high-carbon steel are grain refinement strengthening and precipitation strengthening in the samples austenitized at 900 °C, whereas the improvement of strength is mainly attributed to grain refinement strengthening in the samples austenitized at 1180 °C. This study systematically characterized the pearlite morphology of Nb microalloyed high-carbon steels and analyzed the strengthening mechanism, providing a theoretical reference for the development of Nb-containing high-carbon pearlitic steels.

Microstructure, strength, and fiber texture evolutions in arc-based casting using low-carbon steel wire

The present investigation introduced a modified casting route for steel component manufacturing that uses an electric arc to melt the filler wire and transfer the molten metals as tiny droplets into the sand mould. To study the influence of heat input on microstructure, phase percentage, interlamellar spacing, tensile properties, wear resistance, residual stress, and texture fiber evolutions, samples are cast on a wide range of wire feed speed (WFS) (3 to 9 m/min). It has been observed that higher WFS increases the heat input that transfers small-sized molten droplets into the mould cavity at a faster rate and suitably reduces the mould filling time. Heat input shows a positive response with the microstructural evolutions, i.e., large-sized grains with increased pearlite concentration and interlamellar spacing are encountered under high heat input (low cooling rate). It is attributed to improved carbon atom diffusion with the ferrite phase and increased pearlite transformation time. This increment in pearlite concentration and compressive residual stress further enhanced the tensile performances. Wear resistance varies inversely with the heat input rate. A confirmation of the oxide layer formation due to frictional heat generation during wear testing has been authenticated from Raman spectroscopy analysis. Due to its drop-by-drop deposition nature, high WFS raises the heating rate and droplet detachment frequency. Hence, the degree of recrystallisation increases that boost up ϒ-fiber development with intensified θ-fiber components like {001}〈110〉 and {001}〈100〉. Due to the controlled metal transfer under plasma and argon gas shielding, the casted sample has fewer chances of porosity.