Peak-end Rule Research Articles

Time for memorable consumption

A consumption event is memorable if the memory of the event affects well-being at times after the material consumption, as originally introduced by Gilboa et al. (2016). Our main contribution is to develop an axiomatic foundation of memorable consumption in a dynamic setting. Preferences are represented by the present value of the sum of utilities derived at each date from the current consumption and from recollecting the past. Our model accommodates well-known phenomena in psychology, such as the peak-end rule, duration neglect, and adaptation trends. We also provide foundations for a prominent special case of the representation with the Markovian property. The model is illustrated with applications in two different contexts: risk-taking behavior in a principal-agent problem and life-cycle consumption-savings decisions.

First impressions vs. The Peak-End Rule: Episodic evaluations in a service experience and the moderating effect of retrospective delay

This article integrates prior research on episodic evaluations with the service experience literature to investigate the impact of multiple interactions with frontline employees on customer evaluations of the employees and overall satisfaction with the service experience. A field study was constructed of customer interactions with hotel staff, including over 5,000 customer stays across a 5-year period. The results reveal that key moments, specifically the first impression, peak impressions, and last impressions, significantly impact satisfaction with the overall hotel stay. Moreover, we also introduce a new construct, retrospective delay, which is the time lapse between the actual service experience and the evaluation of the experience. In doing so, unlike prior research indicating the robustness of the peak-end rule, our results find that first impressions are the most important contributor to frontline employee evaluations and overall satisfaction. Furthermore, we find that first impressions become more critical as retrospective delay increases. Our results suggest that first impressions not only impact frontline employee evaluations and satisfaction with the service encounter, but that measurement timing could explain some conflicting findings in the services literature regarding the efficacy of positive starts.

Experimental Verification and Further Reflection on the Peak-End Rule

People make choices all the time, and sometimes the results of choices are unexpected, and the existence of the peak-end rule can explain the counterintuition in our decision evaluation. In fact, changes in "peak" and "end" experiences affect the choices people make all the time and greatly affect the evaluation of decisions. This article summarizes the characteristics of the Peak-End Rule and provides a large number of real-life examples to explain it. Based on this, three experiments were designed to verify the correctness of the Peak-End Rule from different perspectives. Among these experiments, Experiment 2 was the most important, and all participants participated in two stages of the experiment. In the first stage, they ran 100 meters with full effort, and in the second stage, they slowed down and ran 50 meters after running 100 meters with full effort. It was recorded that all participants chose to participate in the second stage of exercise, and more people chose to complete the second stage. This conclusion is contrary to common sense because the second stage covered an additional distance of 50 meters. But this result precisely confirms the conclusion of the Peak-End Theorem, because the end of the second stage run is easier, and more participants choose to run in the second stage. Meanwhile, through in-depth analysis of the data from Experiment 3, the author believes that the impact of the "endpoint" on decision-making is greater than that of the "peak".

If you were happy and you know it, clap your hands! Testing the peak-end rule for retrospective judgments of well-being in everyday life

The experience sampling method (ESM) and comparable assessment approaches are increasingly becoming popular tools for well-being research. In part, they are so popular because they represent more direct approaches for assessing individuals’ experienced well-being during a specified period, whereas one-time, retrospective evaluations of that episode are believed to introduce systematic biases. Along these lines, the peak-end rule states that the most extreme and recent sensations of an episode disproportionally influence retrospective well-being judgments. However, it has yet to be determined whether such systematic effects found in experimental laboratory studies generalize to retrospective judgments of well-being in everyday life as captured in ESM studies. Across four ESM samples (overall N = 1,889, total measurements = 131,575), we found that retrospective well-being judgments were disproportionately influenced by the peak and end experiences from the assessment period. However, these effects depended on the item framing of the retrospective judgment (global vs. more specific framings) and broad versus narrow conceptualizations of peaks and ends (states, days, and weeks), pointing toward potential ways to mitigate peak/end effects. Our findings emphasize the importance of differentiating between momentary and retrospective well-being assessments and selecting an appropriate measurement approach on the basis of these conceptual considerations.

Prayer and the Peak End Rule.

Prayer and the Peak End Rule.

A role for the peak-end rule in improving CPAP adherence?

A role for the peak-end rule in improving CPAP adherence?

고객경험관리를 위한 접점에 대한 고찰 :Peak-end Rule과 Zone of Tolerance를 중심으로

고객경험관리를 위한 접점에 대한 고찰 :Peak-end Rule과 Zone of Tolerance를 중심으로

Smart Tea Utensil Design for Improving Beginners’ Tea Brewing Experience

In Taiwan, people who enjoy traditional Gongfu tea are becoming older and older, while the younger generation has many alternative beverages to select from. In order to sustainably pass down traditional tea-drinking culture, this study has incorporated concepts and methodologies of the peak-end rule, customer journey maps (CJMs), quality function deployment (QFD), fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP), and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation based on entropy, resulting in the development of a set of tea utensils tailored for a novice or beginner tea maker with the purpose of improving the tea-drinking experience of the younger generation. In this study, the ranking of the importance in regard to six design requirements turned out to be: enhancing the sniffing experience (0.240); having ergonomic designs that facilitate a smooth process of pouring hot water into the cup (0.205); increasing the ease of storing tea utensils after brewing (0.162); enabling users to more precisely determine the strength of the tea (0.144); increasing fun while pouring tea leaves into the teapot (0.143); and having clearly designated space for placing each tea utensil (0.107). Through the experts’ evaluation, 66.6% of them rated the design outcome as “good” or “very good”, indicating that the innovative tea utensils developed in this study can effectively satisfy users’ needs. This study can be the supplement to the innovation shortage of tea-culture-related studies, establish the research framework in the academic field, and bring more innovation and potential to the field of the tea culture.

Continuous Error Timing in Automation: The Peak-End Effect on Human-Automation Trust

This study developed an experimental paradigm (CAPTCHA recognition task) with high ecological validity to investigate how continuous errors in an automatic system and the timing of their occurrence affect human-automation trust. The continuous system errors were manipulated to appear at either of the four timing conditions: the early stage, middle stage, late stage of the task, or not showing. Our research found that continuous errors undermines trust in automated systems. More importantly, even with the same average system reliability, overall trust decreases significantly with continuous errors. Human-automation trust is significantly lower in the late continuous error condition compared to the no continuous error condition, indicating that trust in automated systems accords with the peak-end rule. Thus, user trust is mainly affected by the peak and end values of the system reliability. This study provides new suggestions for a trustworthy artificial intelligence design. Although system errors cannot be eliminated thoroughly, developers can minimize their impact on human-automation trust by avoiding continuous errors and preventing them from occurring during the late stage of interaction.

Calves peak-end memory of pain

In humans, the ‘peak-end’ rule states that recollection of an experience is most often influenced by the peak (the most intense moment) and end of the experience. We investigated whether calves followed the peak-end rule in their memory of a painful procedure: disbudding. As proxies for retrospective and ‘real-time’ reports of pain, we used conditioned place aversion, and reflex pain behaviours. In two separate trials, calves were subjected to two disbudding conditioning sessions (one horn per treatment), acting as their own control. In the first trial, calves (n = 22) were disbudded and remained in a pen for 4 h, and disbudded and left in another pen for 4 h with an additional 2 h following an analgesic treatment. In the second trial, calves (n = 22) were disbudded and left in pens for 6 h during both treatments, receiving the analgesic at either 2 h or 4 h after disbudding. Calves were then tested for place aversion. For both trials we did not observe a preference for the pens where calves received analgesic treatment towards the end of the session. We did not find an association between aversion and the sum, peak or end of pain behaviours. Results are not consistent with a peak-end effect in calves’ memory of pain.

Soundwalk path affecting soundscape assessment in urban parks.

Previous soundscape studies focused on sound perception and acoustic comfort in sampled sites and ignored the characteristics of the experiential process along the paths. Therefore, the effects of soundwalk paths on soundscape assessment should be explored. In this study, a typical urban park was selected as a case study. The differences, characteristics, and effects of soundwalk paths on the soundscapes were explored, based on a soundwalk survey and laboratory study. The results are as follows: first, in the soundwalk, different soundwalk paths in the urban park had significant effects on the perceived extent of individual sound and soundscape assessment. Second, the soundscape assessment was consistent with the peak-end rule. In the laboratory experiments, the peak assessment of soundscape appeared at the end location of the soundwalk paths, it was critical to the overall soundscape assessment. Furthermore, in the soundwalk, the overall perceived extent of individual sound was strongly affected by the perceived extent of dominant sounds at the end location of the soundwalk paths. Third, in the soundwalk, the sound loudness contrast path (noise-quiet/quiet-noise) and sound source contrast path (natural-artificial sound/artificial-natural sound) were compared. In the noise-quiet path, the assessment of acoustic comfort was higher than that in the quiet-noise path, and the assessment of subjective loudness was lower than that in the quiet-noise path (p < 0.01). The subjective loudness of the artificial-natural sound path was lower than that in the natural-artificial sound path (p < 0.05). Thus, the design of the soundwalk paths was expected to enhance visitors' soundscape assessment of urban parks.

Japanese pharmacists’ information strategy using behavioural economics: provision of numerical information with ‘peak-end rule’ improves willingness to take a hypothetical medication

AbstractObjectivesLow medication adherence is considered a cause of exacerbated diseases and greater economic losses. Hence, information strategies that improve patients’ willingness to take medications have received considerable attention. Newer information strategies that utilise the ‘peak-end rule’ proposed in behavioural economics were investigated in this study to advance strategy development.MethodsAn online scenario survey was conducted among adults aged 20–79 years in Japan. One of four medication counselling videos on a hypothetical hypertension drug narrated by a pharmacist was viewed by the respondents and their willingness to take the medication was evaluated. The four scenarios differed according to the presence or absence of risk probability and the order in which risk and benefit were provided.Key findingsThe responses of 383 participants were analysed and the results revealed that providing risk probability increased their willingness to take medication (3%), whereas the estimated risk probability by the participants was 28.7% on an average when no numerical probability was provided. Moreover, when risk probability was provided in a benefit/risk order, the willingness to take medication increased than in the risk/benefit order.ConclusionsThe participants’ willingness to take medication improved when the pharmacists provided risk probability; this helped participants comprehend that the risk probability was lesser than their assumptions. Moreover, the participants’ attention to the numeric information in medication counselling can be elicited by the peak-end rule. The findings from the hypothetical scenarios employed in this study merit further testing in real-life situations for clinical application.

On a dynamical model of happiness

It is now recognized that the personal well-being of an individual can be evaluated numerically. The related utility (“happiness”) profile would give at each instant t the degree u(t) of happiness. The moment-based approach to the evaluation of happiness introduced by the Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman establishes that the experienced utility of an episode can be derived from real-time measures of the pleasure and pain that the subject experienced during that episode. Since these evaluations consist of two types of utility concepts: instant utility and remembered utility, a dynamic model of happiness based on this approach must be defined by a delay differential equation. Furthermore, the application of the peak-end rule leads to a class of delay-differential equations called differential equations with maxima. We propose a dynamical model for happiness based on differential equations with maxima and provide results which shed some new light on important experimental observations. In particular, our model supports the U-shaped profile of the age-happiness curve, which is a widely observed pattern: well-being is high in youth, falls to a minimum in midlife (midlife crisis), and rises again in old age.

Analysis of thermal comfort experience using peak-end rule with air conditioner in heating season

Recent years have seen a significant increase in study on the thermal comfort offered by room air conditioners (RACs) when utilized as heaters, especially in the steady stage. Research indicates that convective terminals can form a comfortable environment using optimized control settings and strategies. Nevertheless, complaints about the thermal comfort experienced when using RACs persist, which is probably related to cognitive bias in psychology. The final seconds of an experience are given a lot of weight by the peak-end rule, which is typically characterized as the positive/negative peak. They were used to analyze how different heating experiences rated in terms of thermal comfort. Therefore, dynamic indoor temperature variations with six different terminals and control strategies were analyzed. Furthermore, an experiment with a thermal sensation, thermal comfort, thermal preference, and thermal adaptability vote (TSV, TCV, TPV and TAV) with different dynamic controlling characteristics was conducted in an artificial chamber. Three control methods with different peak moments were determined: slow start, interval downtime operation, and continuous heating. The comprehensive experience TCVs were 2.72, 2.28, and 1.12, and average-weighted TCVs were 1.94, 1.60, and 1.14, respectively. This exhibited a significant difference in terms of the heating process evaluation. In contrast, the TCVs based on the peak-end rule were 2.52, 2.31, and 1.11, respectively, which is more consistent with field evaluation. There is strong evidence that peak-end rule applies to TCV for air-conditioning systems. Other cognitive biases were also analyzed to evaluate the heating experience. Reasons for the thermal discomfort of RACs are also summarized.

A Study of Consumer Experience Enhancement in the Leisure Industry Based on Peak-End Rule: the Case of Atour

As people's incomes rise and consumer tiers increase, the leisure industry has become one of the focal points of the consumer and investment markets. For companies to break through the fierce competition in the leisure industry, enhancing the consumer experience is one of the key factors for success. Based on the Peak-End Rule proposed by Kahneman et al. which emphasizes both the peak and the end aspects of the consumer experience to create consumer satisfaction ultimately. Atour, an emerging mid-end hotel chain group in China, as a case study to gain insights into ways to improve the consumer experience in the leisure industry through a SWOT analysis of its operational data and a discussion of its consumer characteristics and service touchpoint innovations. The study finds that establishing a positive first impression, enhancing key service touchpoints, stimulating potential experience peaks, and reinforcing positive perceptions at the end, can effectively improve the consumer experience in all steps of the process and enhance consumer satisfaction, thus winning consumers over and gaining advantages in the market competition.

The peak-end rule and its dynamic realization through differential equations with maxima *

In the 1990s, after a series of experiments, the behavioural psychologist and economist Daniel Kahneman and his colleagues formulated the following peak-end evaluation rule: the remembered utility of pleasant or unpleasant episodes is accurately predicted by averaging the peak (most intense value) of instant utility (or disutility) recorded during an episode and the instant utility recorded near the end of the experience (Kahneman et al 1997 Q. J. Econ. 112 375–405). Based on this rule, we propose a mathematical model for the time evolution of the experienced utility function given by the scalar differential equation where f represents exogenous stimuli, h is the maximal duration of the experience, and are some averaging weights. In this work, we study equation and show that, for a range of parameters and a periodic sine-like term f, the dynamics of can be completely described in terms of an associated one-dimensional dynamical system generated by a piece-wise continuous map from a finite interval into itself. We illustrate our approach with two representative examples. In particular, we show that the utility u(t) (e.g. ‘happiness’, interpreted as hedonic utility) can exhibit chaotic behaviour.

Comparing recalled versus experienced symptoms of breathlessness ratings: An ecological assessment study using mobile phone technology.

Background and objectiveRecall of breathlessness is important for clinical care but might differ from the experienced (momentary) symptoms. This study aimed to characterize the relationship between momentary breathlessness ratings and the recall of the experience. It is hypothesized that recall is influenced by the peak (worst) and end (most recent) ratings of momentary breathlessness (peak‐end rule).MethodsThis study used mobile ecological momentary assessment (mEMA) for assessing breathlessness in daily life through an application installed on participants' mobile phones. Breathlessness ratings (0–10 numerical rating scale) were recorded throughout the day and recalled each night and at the end of the week. Analyses were performed using regular and mixed linear regression.ResultsEighty‐four people participated. Their mean age was 64.4 years, 60% were female and 98% had modified Medical Research Council (mMRC) ≥ 1. The mean number of momentary ratings of breathlessness provided was 7.7 ratings/participant/day. Recalled breathlessness was associated with the mean, peak and end values of the day. The mean was most closely associated with the daily recall. Associations were strong for weekly values: peak breathlessness (beta = 0.95, r 2 = 0.57); mean (beta = 0.91, r 2 = 0.53); and end (beta = 0.67, r 2 = 0.48); p < 0.001 for all. Multivariate analysis showed that peak breathlessness had the strongest influence on the breathlessness recalled at the end of the week.ConclusionOver 1 week, recalled breathlessness is most strongly influenced by the peak breathlessness; over 1 day, it is mean breathlessness that participants most readily recalled.

Impact of e-fulfillment on consumer loyalty across different product types

PurposeThere is limited literature linking e-fulfillment and product type with postpurchase consumer behavior measures like loyalty, even though there has been a rapid increase in e-tailing. E-fulfillment is defined in literature as a sequence of processes. Each process in this sequence is expected to have a different impact on consumer loyalty across product type. Thus relative importance of e-fulfillment processes leading to consumer loyalty. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of e-fulfillment on consumer loyalty across two product types: “standard, regular” and “physical product” (e.g. book, clothing, etc.) and “standard, nonregular” and “physical product” (e.g. computer, refrigerator, etc.) using the peak-end rule theory for an e-tailer.Design/methodology/approachTo know the consumer loyalty for e-fulfillment across the two product types, the partial least square-structural equation modeling approach aided by the SmartPLS 3 tool was used for data analysis as it avoids biases in the parameter estimation in regression analysis. A total of 603 consumer responses through an online and physically administered questionnaire were obtained and were used for the empirical analysis.FindingsResults indicate that for standard, nonregular and physical products, all the e-fulfillment components (customization strategy, website quality, distribution strategy, last mile delivery and return management) positively impact consumer loyalty. Except for the customization strategy, for standard regular and physical product types, all other e-fulfillment components positively impact consumer loyalty.Practical implicationsThis study will be helpful to e-tail managers to configure the e-fulfillment components according to product types, thereby increasing consumer loyalty.Originality/valueWhile some e-fulfillment components have been linked to consumer loyalty in literature, there is no study establishing linkages between e-fulfillment as a construct and consumer loyalty across product types. This has implications for decision makers in e-tail as the study provides e-fulfillment strategy customization across product types for achieving consumer loyalty in e-tail, a key marketing metric.

All’s well that ends (and peaks) well? A meta-analysis of the peak-end rule and duration neglect

The peak-end rule (Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993) asserts that, when people retrospectively evaluate an experience (e.g., the previous workday), they rely more heavily on the episode with peak intensity and on the final (end) episode than on other episodes in the experience. We meta-analyzed 174 effect sizes and found strong support for the peak-end rule. The peak-end effect on retrospective summary evaluations was: (1) large (r = 0.581, 95% Confidence Interval = 0.487–0.661), (2) robust across boundary conditions, (3) comparable to the effect of the overall average (mean) score and stronger than the effects of the trend and variability across all episodes in the experience, (4) stronger than the effects of the first (beginning) and lowest intensity (trough) episodes, and (5) stronger than the effect of the duration of the experience (which was essentially nil, thereby supporting the idea of duration neglect; Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993). We provide a future research agenda and practical implications.

The peak–end rule in evaluating product user experience: The chronological evaluation of past impressive episodes on overall satisfaction

AbstractThis study investigates the peak–end rule's applicability in evaluating the product user experience in the context of overall satisfaction with smartphone applications, a chronological evaluation of past impressive episodes with the use of applications, and the satisfaction level of each episode. The effects of the positive and negative peaks (maximum and minimum satisfaction score) and the end (satisfaction score at the most recent episode) were analyzed against the overall satisfaction in a series of episodes. Two representative groups (satisfied and dissatisfied) were surveyed regarding their satisfaction with a selected application. A correlation analysis between the variables revealed that the peaks and the end correlated with overall satisfaction. Further analysis with hierarchical multiple regression models revealed that the positive and negative peaks do not necessarily explain overall satisfaction dominantly in the regression model of this study. However, the possibility that they are related to the overall satisfaction was confirmed. In contrast, this study demonstrated the significant influence of the most recent event on the overall satisfaction level.