Peaceful Relations Research Articles

Nondum tecum in gratiam redii (Suet. Tib . 61.5): Reconciliation and Compromise in the Tiberian Reign of Terror

Abstract In an anecdote written by Suetonius to emphasize Tiberius’ extreme cruelty, the emperor is said to have been so vindictive as to not only inflict death upon multitudes of people, but also keep death from others wishing to die. These people were imprisoned and sustained by the smallest rations of food, just enough to keep them alive and suffering. When one such victim begged to be put to death, the emperor replied that he had not yet made his peace with him. Unbelievable as this anecdote may be, it raises the question of whether, and on what terms, reconciliation with this seemingly unforgiving emperor would have been possible. Most ancient authors presented Tiberius as a cruel tyrant. This is especially so in their depiction of his so-called “reign of terror” following the death of his all-powerful praetorian prefect Sejanus in 31 CE, which saw the persecution of many of the latter’s followers. Nonetheless, some notable individuals escaped the fate of their comrades. Did Tiberius simply forgive the likes of Lentulus Gaetulicus and M. Terentius for their support of Sejanus, or did he rather compromise and come to terms with them, and if so, how, and why? In this article, I argue that despite Tiberius’ traditional image and the reality of his “reign of terror”, he was perfectly capable of making pragmatic and reasonable compromises to maintain relative peace with some of Sejanus’ most powerful adherents. I will also suggest that these compromises were hardly perceived as such, not just because of the prejudice of the sources against Tiberius, but perhaps also due to a semantic and conceptual gap, which made it difficult for the ancient Romans to accept compromise as a fact.

How to Exhibit Competing Narratives: Confronting Legacies of Conflict or Sustaining Social Cleavages?

This contribution explores how museums contribute to or degrade peaceful relations in divided societies in light of ongoing disputes at the cultural-symbolic level. The case concerns the autonomous province of South Tyrol (Italy), which successfully settled a minority conflict. This inquiry into how museums confront historical legacies and persisting conflict-related tensions sheds light on the interplay between cultural expressions, institutions, and the socio-political landscape. Looking at three representative museum/exhibitions, we identify specific elements and strategies that either recontextualize debates or sustain divisive understandings of the minority conflict. We argue that museums/exhibitions play a critical role in the aftermath of conflict in ways that affect social cohesion and stability.

A paradigm shift in international security as a consequence of the Russia-Ukraine war

This article presents the main features of the historical genesis of the international security paradigm shift from its institutionalisation to the present day. It is shown that such genesis is sinusoidal in nature and related to the well-known 'Kondratiev waves', except that, unlike the latter, it is not economic in nature, but security in nature. In a historical and geopolitical context, five successive shifts in the international security paradigm (Pre-Systemic, Westphalian, Vienna, Versailles, Yalta-Potsdam, Unipolar) are distinguished as a normatively recognised system of international relations of war and peace, based on all countries' adherence to universally recognised principles and norms of international law, as enshrined in relevant international treaties. The main factors of the end of the era of the unipolar world and the growing role of 'fragile' states in the international security environment as potential objects of international military interventions and spaces for the deployment of local conflicts and wars were characterised. It was concluded that the war in Ukraine is a key trigger for a new paradigm shift in international security and the emergence of a new system of international relations, and that the outcome of the Russian-Ukrainian war will determine the 'starting positions' and strong arguments in the hands of the United States of America and its allies against China and its allies during the inevitable new global security conference on the creation of a new world order.

Charting the Norms–Peace Relationship: Looking Back to Look Ahead

ABSTRACT This article identifies and extends several key issues and concerns derived from those other contributions in the special issue. These are organized around three questions: (1) whose peace?, (2) whose norms?, (3) what is the relationship between norms and peace? Within each of these three sections, the article notes how the other articles raise key issues about the intersection of norms and peace. In addition, the key issues or research concerns within each section are reviewed with an eye to future research and approaches. The article also draws upon the broader studies on norms and peace in providing these pathways.

Effigies, religion and reversals in the celebration of Purim by Cochin Jews

ABSTRACT This paper discusses the role of the effigy in the celebration of the festival of Purim as enacted by the Cochin Jews of south India in three major periods: under Portuguese conquest in the sixteenth century, in Cochin in the twentieth century, and in a different topography in Israel. Cochin Jews at their peak only numbered 2400 prior to Indian Independence; they never suffered antisemitism except under the Portuguese and lived in harmony with their Hindu, Christian and Muslim neighbours. On the festival of Purim, role reversals took place to protest hierarchical social structures inherent in caste and religion, thereby enabling peaceful relations between members of different religions, communities and quasi-castes (jati) during the year. The inversions were expressed in the construction of effigies of the adversary, as well as in special songs, which represented symbolic protests against hegemonic domination, which addressed other daily injustices, based on gender. Today, the majority of Cochin Jewry live in Israel, where they celebrate Purim, embracing globalization and identification with world Jewry. The physical presence of the Cochin Jewish community, its very embodiment, like the effigy, has been almost totally eroded in India, while the body politic lives on in another world, Israel.

Honourable kāwanatanga: A prerequisite for constitutional transformation

Understandings of Te Tiriti o Waitangi continue to unfold as we find our way through the complexities of colonial misinformation about our herstory and history. Looking ahead to the prospect of constitutional transformation, this paper examines honourable kāwanatanga as a necessary pathway to Tiriti justice. This commentary paper draws on existing literature and insights from the Māori and Tauiwi authors’ decades of experience of pursuing Tiriti justice. The Crown has consistently breached Te Tiriti and engaged in dishonourable kāwanatanga. Māori have always resisted colonisation and imagined a future where Te Tiriti was honoured. Latterly, Tauiwi in increasing numbers have also joined this resistance. The preamble of Te Tiriti o Waitangi articulates the desire of rangatira and the British to enter into a relationship of goodwill and peace. Rangatira reasonably anticipated that the British would behave honourably. The subsequent displacement of Māori from land, language, economy and cultural traditions from 1840 onwards, resulted in devastating intergenerational harms and losses. Ani Mikaere has argued that the Māori–Crown relationship has deteriorated to the point of resembling the dynamics of an abusive relationship. This characterisation suggests an unequal and harmful interaction, where one party holds power and control over the other, often at the expense of the latter’s rights, well-being, and autonomy, whilst societal institutions and common sense, deeply support the abuser. Honourable kāwanatanga, as a tool for transformations toward social justice, is often used as an intentional description to mark Tiriti-centric governance as opposed to deep-rooted dishonourable, Tiriti-breaching governance. This form of abuse characterises the ongoing colonial hegemony which has generated and maintained institutional racism and monoculturalism and allowed it to flourish within the public service and many other sectors of society. The notion of honourable kāwanatanga intersects with the call of Matike Mai and supports collective Indigenous peoples’ rights.

Reconciliation in palliative care: A concept analysis.

The aim was to gain a deeper understanding of the meaning of reconciliation as a concept in palliative care. Terminal illnesses affect almost all aspects of life and being close to death may lead to a need for reconciliation. The end of life is stressful on an existential level for both patients and relatives. It can therefore be of relevance for palliative care nurses to understand the meaning of reconciliation. This study used a design for a literature study in accordance with a hybrid model. A deductive qualitative content analysis of autobiographies about being seriously ill and in a palliative stage in life was used to test the meaning of reconciliation. Ethical aspects concerning the use of autobiographies and the ethical principles of the Helsinki Declaration were considered. The theoretical perspective was the caritative theory of caring. The result showed that for patients in palliative care, reconciliation can be described as a strive for acceptance, to live in a truthful way, to forgive and be forgiven. People wish to create meaning in their existence and reconcile as a whole in body, spirit, and soul. By striving to unite suffering, life, and death as well as a peaceful relationship with relatives, people can achieve reconciliation at the end of life. Reconciliation is something ongoing and can be a force in what has been, what is, and what will be. We conclude that reconciliation is a concept of importance when caring for patients in end-of-life care. However, reconciliation can be expressed in different ways without necessarily using the concept itself. A broader and deeper understanding of the concept facilitates conversations about the meaning of reconciliation in palliative care and can enable patients who strive to achieve reconciliation to be more easily identified and supported.

Societal Bond: Nature and growth of Indigenous cooperative initiatives in Gusii Land

This paper surveys of the nature and growth of indigenous cooperative initiatives in Gusii land before the colonial period. It sought to contribute to the efforts of the Abagusii community towards the innovation of indigenous cooperative initiatives as an initiative for the transformation of the majority of the people in Gusii land. The paper employed the principle of modernization theory which asserts that a break from primitive customs was the basis for the development of any society. To him, development is ‘white’ and the only way developing countries can develop is to follow the footsteps of European countries. Nevertheless, the paper intentionally utilized the criticism of modernization theory to advance the objective of indigenous cooperative initiatives in Gusiiland. The study was done in Kisii County. The population of the study was sampled from the nine sub-counties of Kisii County using the snowballing sampling technique. The study further used primary sources of data collection which included oral interviews and archival evidence. In addition, internet sources and libraries were widely utilized as secondary materials. A descriptive method was used to analyse data collected from the field thereafter. The justification of this study was the rationale for the emergence and sprouting of indigenous cooperative initiatives in Gusii land. It was concluded therefore that -laziness was considered a disease and hence prohibited in the community and that the unity of purpose ensured not only food security but also ensured love for one another was bound and relative peace and security maintained. Further, findings were also evident that indigenous cooperative initiatives in the long run created a chain of bonds among the Abagusii which still exists to date

Politics of Violence in Healthcare

Violence against healthcare workers (HCWs) has surged globally, extending beyond conflict zones into areas of relative peace. This editorial examines the epidemic of such violence, which has been exacerbated by recent pandemics. Historical and contemporary instances, such as the 1830s cholera riots, the 2013/14 Ebola outbreak, and recent attacks in Kolkata, highlight how political instability, public mistrust, and socio-economic inequalities fuel aggression against HCWs. A comprehensive analysis reveals that 50-75% of HCWs experience workplace violence, with a significant portion facing sexual abuse. Contributing factors include inadequate security, poor governance, and societal intolerance of HCWs. Possible solutions offer hope, including workplace safety, legal protections, and public awareness of the problem. The editorial calls for a multi-faceted approach involving legislation, better reporting, and global cooperation to address the root causes of violence and improve the safety of HCWs.

‘Ubuntu’ African Philosophy or ‘Ubuntu’ as a Philosophy for Africa

This paper tries to develop a tenable philosophical idea of Ubuntu, that is, more specifically, a crystallized and sanitized African indigenous ethical perspective. Africa as an idea seems to be a “contested” concept in this contemporary post-colonial era due to the influx of different nuances, races, values, and beliefs that are in contention. Should this be a source of worry? So far, Ubuntu theory and practice in Africa seem to have become emotive, politicized, and not inclusive enough due to grandstanding about ownership, poor conceptual and theoretical articulation, as well as antagonism from other related foreign dominant worldviews that wish to become the development paradigm for most African social and political systems. This raises relational and dialogical issues about meaning from an African viewpoint. The search for an African endogenous paradigm for development is urgent given the real consequences of a (neo)colonial tendency that has threatened and disadvantaged the development of most countries due to its dominant paradigms of alienation, exploitation, and marginalization. These values have altered or affected African behaviour and thinking. This transformation of the African personality raises issues about agency. The underlying values of a development paradigm or philosophy of development for Africa require an ethical basis for human existence in political and social order. Generally, social order in most parts of Africa is beset by the problem of a negative dominant social paradigm (DSP) or core social values of hatred, intolerance, the abuse of human rights, dehumanization, exploitation, authoritarianism, poverty, and oppression. This often leads to tension, violent conflicts, and wars. So to build a viable and stable endogenous paradigm for development in most African sociopolitical environments, we attempt to use the main pillar of interconnectedness among human beings, which is central to Ubuntu as a humane and humanistic social system, to underscore some key moral and democratic values required for human liberation and transformation. The research question is: What concrete elements or values of Ubuntu can be useful as paradigms of endogenous African development? Specifically, our findings suggest that Ubuntu ethics is defined by a set of human values central among which are reciprocity, the common good, peaceful relations, an emphasis on human dignity and the value of human life, as well as consensus, tolerance, and mutual respect. Thus, the paper argues for the possibility of utilizing Ubuntu ethical correlates as materials for establishing stable and viable development worldwide and specifically in Africa.

Velkoplošné zpracování železa v raně středověkých protourbanistických sídlištích: případová studie z lokality Mikulčice-Valy, Česká republika

Pyrometallurgical remnants, including slags and technical ceramics, offer crucial insights into Early Medieval ironworking. Iron held substantial economic significance during this era and its processing is particularly evident in settlement agglomerations and proto-urban sites across Northern and East Central Europe. Despite its importance, large-scale ironworking remains inadequately explored within broader socio-economic contexts. Our study examines around 300 kg of pyrotechnical waste from the northern suburbium of the Mikulčice-Valy settlement agglomeration (Czech Republic) using macroscopic and metallographic (SEM-EDS, WD-XRF) methods. The findings reveal specialised blacksmithing characterised by intensity and diversity contributing to a better understanding of the operational dynamics and installations in craft-production workshops. We propose that blacksmiths capitalised on the proto-urban environment, satisfying a high demand for diverse iron commodities of a dense population actively engaged in household, agricultural and artisanal work. While elites facilitated access to raw materials and maintained relative peace, direct control over iron production and distribution among the elites appears limited, apart from valuables like weapons. This study sheds light on the complex interplay between ironworkers and political-economic structures, offering new perspectives on the mechanisms driving Early Medieval iron economies.

Diskursus Penafsiran Tentang Sedekah Kepada Non–Muslim di Kalangan Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) dan Muhammadiyah (MU)

This article explores the interpretation of almsgiving to non-Muslims according to the views of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah (MU). It is grounded in Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 272, which discusses the Prophet Muhammad's guidance against limiting almsgiving exclusively to Muslims and prohibits offering humanitarian assistance with the condition of converting to Islam. The study investigates how NU and MU understand almsgiving to non-Muslims, particularly focusing on their interpretation of the boundaries of almsgiving within the framework of Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 272, and their perspectives on its legal implications. The research uses a qualitative approach, gathering data through direct observations and interviews with NU leaders. The findings reveal that both NU and MU, based on their interpretations and scriptural evidence, concur that Allah SWT does not forbid acts of kindness toward non-Muslims who have established peaceful relations and do not engage in hostilities against Muslims. The verse also does not prevent fair treatment of them. The shared understanding between NU and MU is reflected in the similar meanings of Surah Al-Mumtahanah, verse 8, and Surah Al-Insan, verse 8, which underscore the principle of justice without religious bias. The conclusion is that almsgiving to non-Muslims is permissible. This study seeks to convey this perspective to the broader community and members of Islamic organizations, referencing relevant tafsir texts to provide a thorough explanation of the debate on almsgiving to non-Muslims and the interpretation of Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 272

Embracing Liberalism’s Complexity

ABSTRACT Liberalism offers communities an eclectic set of core values and diverse institutions that may improve the chances that people with varying beliefs and life goals can live and work together in relative peace and prosperity. Yet liberal democracy is under threat, once again. Anti-liberal populists on the right and radicals on the left both dismiss core civil and political rights, but for different reasons: unrealistic expectations for moral consensus or equality of outcomes, respectively. Similarly, too many self-described liberals act illiberally, allowing their enthusiasm for a particular cause to justify sacrificing other core values. This essay has three purposes: (1) to counter recurring forecasts of the death of liberalism; (2) to clarify that liberalism’s normative, political, and institutional diversity has proven essential to its survival thus far; and (3) to suggest ways in which liberalism’s diversity may be further enriched by incorporating polycentric governance and other aspects of institutional analysis as developed by Elinor and Vincent Ostrom.

Zhangzhou Immigrants between China and the Spanish: Diplomatic Conversations Concerning the 1603 Incident in Manila

Starting in 1573 with the establishment of Manila, the circulation of Chinese goods along the trans-Pacific route brought the Ming Dynasty and the Spanish Empire into contact. Consequently, many people from Fujian Province, especially Zhangzhou city, went to Manila and facilitated the operation of the city. This paper examines the interactions of Zhangzhou immigrants in Manila, focusing their roles and living situations in Parián, the designated neighborhood for the Sangleys. In particular, the diplomatic conversation concerning the 1603 Incident is analyzed to elucidate how the Sangleys were perceived by both the Ming court and the Spanish governors. Records produced by Chinese elites, local gazetteers, and Spanish correspondence reveal the conflicts and negotiations between the Ming government and officials of the Spanish Empire concerning this matter, as well as local and state differences in views. While the contributions of the Sangleys were recognized and used to promote the moral superiority of both sides, they were not seriously considered by either the Chinese court or the Spanish government. The Sangleys offer a unique perspective on the positioning of these two state powers: Each desired to maintain a peaceful relationship yet simultaneously adopted a cautious stance. This study illuminates some of the connections and conflicts which emerged during early modern globalization.

BEYOND RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE: REFLECTING THE INTERFAITH WOMEN’S DIALOGUE

With its diversity in ethnicity and religion, some parts of Indonesia tend to be vulnerable to conflicts. This research aims to reveal the practice of religious tolerance and the active role of interfaith women in maintaining religious tolerance through daily dialogue. It emphasizes the significant participation of interfaith women in fostering religious tolerance. This study collected data from interfaith women in the Fatubesi subdistrict area of Kupang City using interviews and observation. The results show that interfaith women in Fatubesi, especially in the Oeba traditional market, live in harmonious and peaceful relationships. They have practiced the spirit of sisterhood and friendship in their daily encounters. Even though they are rarely involved in formal dialogue, women are active in a dialogue of life through daily interactions in informal spaces. They are connected in solidarity through openness, acceptance, respect, and helping one another. Furthermore, interfaith women are active peacekeepers through their activities of sharing food and other basic needs in their neighborhoods and during their religious celebrations. Therefore, the activism of interfaith women in the Fatubesi area is a practice that goes beyond religious tolerance.

Competing Claims of Caliphal Legitimacy: Al-Tamaghrouti’s Rihla and the Moroccan-Ottoman Early Modern Diplomatic Landscape

This article explores al-Tamaghrouti’s Rihla, Al-Nafhah al-Miskia fi al-Sifarah al-Turkiyah [The Fragrant Breeze in the Turkish Embassy], to illuminate his engagement with the spiritual and temporal legitimacy of caliphal claims in the early modern Islamicate Mediterranean. It argues that Moroccan embassies to the Sublime Porte were arenas where claims to temporal and spiritual superiority played themselves out in the form of competing caliphal symbolism. When situated within Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur’s caliphal vision, Al-Tamaghrouti’s account reveals a discursive landscape marked by contrasting claims to the superiority of the Moroccan normative order. His Rihla vividly captures the double-bind challenges faced by al-Mansur’s Morocco in the sixteenth century: Iberian imperialism and Ottoman expansionism. I resituate the insight that dynamic interactions among various Muslim-Christian universalistic principles maintained a paradoxical longevity of peaceful relations (Windler 2018) within the rubric of Muslim-Muslim relations to explore how different universalistic ideologies interact within inter-imperial/religious Muslim relations, particularly in the context of diplomatic engagements and political interactions. Al-Tamaghrouti drew on various spiritual and temporal motifs to construe a space of hermeneutic ambiguity whereby Sultan al-Mansur’s claims to universal caliphal leadership not only fulfills Mahdist qualities but transcends them, construing a discursive field in which al-Mansur emerges as a leader who transcends prophetic norms. By analyzing the interplay of power, religion, and diplomacy in al-Tamaghrouti’s travelogue, we gain a deeper understanding of the intricacies of statecraft and the ongoing pursuit of legitimacy in the Islamic world.

Mírové smlouvy v mezinárodních vztazích. (K problematice kritérií a systematizace)

The subject of this study is the issue of peace treaties, which are among the most important diplomatic acts and documents in international relations. Peace treaties represent one of the most important types of international treaties. They are an integral part of the couple relationship of peace and war. Their basic specificity is the fact that, on the one hand, they confirm the end of the war conflict and, on the other hand, establish measures and rules for the subsequent relations between the participants in the conflict. In contrast to the prevailing approach, which deals with this issue from the point of view of international law, the author approached the issue on the basis of historical analysis and comparison. His goal was to establish criteria and, based on this, systematize the most important peace treaties concluded in the course of the history of international relations. The author came to determine a total of six intertwining main models of peace treaties: 1. victory of one side over the other, 2. parties exhausted each other and none won, 3. only one of the stages of the war was ended, 4. participation in the conflict ended with a peace treaty only some parties, 5. number of parties involved, 6. content aspect of the treaty. Following this, the author also paid attention to other related problems. Specifically, these are the ratification and observance of peace treaties, accompanying and follow-up contractual arrangements, the extent and degree of punishment of the defeated party, and treaties intended to prevent conflict. The purpose of the study was to create a conceptual and systematically anchored framework for further research on this important part of international relations and diplomacy.

What is the Case Volume of Orthopaedic Trauma Surgeons in the Military Health System? An Assessment of Wartime Readiness and Skills Sustainment.

Complex, high-energy extremity trauma secondary to explosive mechanisms has been increasingly common in modern warfare, accounting for a majority of combat wounds throughout the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. Fellowship-trained orthopaedic trauma surgeons treated many of these complex injuries; however, as the number of casualties continue to decrease during a period of relative peace, a growing concern over maintaining military trauma readiness exists. The Military Health System Data Repository was queried for all Common Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes associated with 18 fellowship-trained orthopaedic trauma surgeons from 2013 to 2019. The codes were further analyzed and categorized based on common trauma subspecialty procedures such as fracture fixation of the pelvic ring, acetabulum, upper and lower extremity, peri-articular, and nonunion/malunion surgery. We used descriptive statistics to quantify both the average number of cases per surgeon per year in each of the subcategories and case volume among Military Treatment Facilities (MTFs) during the study period. We identified 7,769 CPT codes for surgical procedures throughout the study period. The most common surgical procedures performed were: removal of implant (n = 836, 11%), knee arthroscopy (n = 507, 7%), and debridement of devitalized tissue (n = 345, 4%). The total trauma subspecialty procedural codes and average cases per surgeon per year were as follows: pelvic ring (n = 54, <1 case/year), acetabulum (n = 90, 1 case/year), upper extremity (n = 1,314, 15 cases/year), lower extremity (n = 2,286, 25 cases/year), peri-articular (n = 675, 8 cases/year), and nonunion/malunion (n = 288, 3 cases/year). San Antonio Military Medical Center (SAMMC) accounted for the most fracture-related CPT codes overall (35%), while all other MTFs contributed approximately 10% or less of all fracture-related codes. These results highlight the lack of orthopaedic trauma volume at other MTFs outside of SAMMC, raising concern for maintaining military readiness during an inter-war period of relative peace. The DoD continues to make concerted efforts to maintain readiness through civilian partnerships and subsequently increase surgical case volume for military trauma surgeons. Future efforts should include an in-depth analysis of caseloads of military trauma surgeons providing care at both MTFs and civilian institutions to optimize preparedness in future conflicts.

European security and Finland’s policy during the Russian aggression against Ukraine

The purpose of this article is to analyze the influence of Finland on regional policy of NATO and the Russo-Ukrainian war. The article explores political, economic and military aspects of Finland and Ukraine in the light of the Russian aggression while considering their relationships and foreign policy goals on a regional level. The author draws attention to various aspects of Helsinki domestic and foreign policy that is directed to set a balance in the region and, at the same time, to support Kyiv militarily and economically in confrontation with Moscow. Finland’s active policy of promoting stability can be described as a two-track policy, whereby EU membership and intensified military cooperation with Western partners provide a basis for the maintenance and development of relations with Russia. The author focused on energy resources and its importance for Finland that has a long history of energy trade with Russia. The trade is practically one-directional, as Finland lacks domestic fossil fuel reserves in comparison with its substantial demand for energy, whereas Russia has significant export volumes. Along with the above-mentioned issues, the author is observing aggressive Russian military activities in the Baltic Sea region. Despite peaceful relationships with Finland, Moscow does not mind to remind neighboring countries who calls the tune in the region. Pursuing this purpose, Russia increases military activity in the Baltic Sea region with relatively frequent airspace and territorial water violations. As a result, there is a risk that collisions or provocations might lead to a rapid and uncontrolled escalation. So, Finland finds its important to keep open channels for political dialogue and to seek ways to re-activate existing confidence-building measures. Finland-NATO relationships are taken into consideration as well. The author described the process of Finland’s accession to the alliance. After almost 30 years of close partnership with NATO, Finland joined the Alliance on April 4, 2023. Its partnership with NATO was historically based on its policy of military non-alignment, which changed following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Following Russia’s aggression, Ukraine has requested materiel assistance from the EU and NATO member countries. To date, Finland has donated 23 defence materiel packages to Ukraine. The combined value of all defence materiel packages submitted so far is now over EUR 2 billion.

Janus faced: The co-evolution of war and peace in the human species.

The human species presents a paradox. No other species possesses the propensity to carry out coalitionary lethal attacks on adult conspecifics coupled with the inclination to establish peaceful relations with genetically unrelated groups. What explains this seemingly contradictory feature? Existing perspectives, the "deep roots" and "shallow roots" of war theses, fail to capture the plasticity of human intergroup behaviors, spanning from peaceful cooperation to warfare. By contrast, this article argues that peace and war have both deep roots, and they co-evolved through an incremental process over several million years. On the one hand, humans inherited the propensity for coalitionary lethal violence from their chimpanzee-like ancestor. Specifically, having first inherited the skills to engage in cooperative hunting, they gradually repurposed such capacity to execute coalitionary killings of adult conspecifics and subsequently enhanced it through technological innovations like the use of weapons. On the other hand, they underwent a process of cumulative cultural evolution and, subsequently, of self-domestication which led to heightened cooperative communication and increased prosocial behavior within and between groups. The combination of these two biocultural evolutionary processes-coupled with feedback loop effects between self-domestication and Pleistocene environmental variability-considerably broadened the human intergroup behavioral repertoire, thereby producing the distinctive combination of conflictual and peaceful intergroup relations that characterizes our species. To substantiate this argument, the article synthesizes and integrates the findings from a variety of disciplines, leveraging evidence from evolutionary anthropology, primatology, archeology, paleo-genetics, and paleo-climatology.