Peace Operations Research Articles

Compellence by denial against armed groups: UN peacekeeping in Ituri, the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Abstract Peace operations are often deployed to countries where conflicts are effectively ongoing, with mandates to protect civilians and provide security. With the authorisation to use force beyond self-defence, peacekeepers are expected to exert military pressure on armed groups to induce them to abandon violence and join peace processes. Such an approach falls in the domain of compellence. Given that peace operations struggle to adapt to this new expectation, it is imperative to find effective ways of compelling armed groups. While studies on compellence agree on the effectiveness of denial-type pressure, its specific forms are highly context-dependent. What is the most effective way to achieve denial against armed groups in the context of peace operations? There are four such approaches: attrition, stronghold neutralisation, decapitation, and counter-coercion negation. A case study of peacekeeping by the United Nation in Ituri reveals that stronghold neutralisation and counter-coercion negation were especially important for compelling rebels to disarm. As existing studies have not examined the effectiveness of specific forms of denial in peace operations, the finding contributes significantly to the literature on compellence and peace operations.

The Force Intervention Brigade: A Conscious Departure

Abstract This article examines lessons learned from the Force Intervention Brigade in relation to the fundamental principles of peacekeeping. Whilst the Security Council declared that the Brigade, deployed in the dr Congo in 2013, was created ‘without a precedent or any prejudice to the agreed principles of peacekeeping’ this article will consider how it has challenged our understanding of these principles and will question to what extent a precedent has been set within peacekeeping. As the UN’s peace operation in the Congo, monusco, is set to withdraw and regional actors involved in the creation of the Brigade seek to deploy forces, the article will argue that the Brigade expanded peacekeeping to its very limits, amounting to a ‘conscious departure’ from the peacekeeping principles which should be avoided in any future UN peace operations.

Evaluation Of The 1974 Cyprus Peace Operation in The Light of Jus Cogens Rules

Shortly after the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus, the events initiated by Makarios’ attempts to amend the constitution, which escalated into internal conflicts and external interventions, culminated in Turkey’s military intervention. The effects of this intervention continue to persist today. Due to this characteristic, it has been the subject of many studies; however, it has not been evaluated in terms of the jus cogens rules, which express the universally accepted principles of international law, and the stages of the just war theory. To address this need, the 1974 Cyprus Peace Operation, a long-standing international issue, has been examined within the framework of the jus cogens rules of international law, considering the three phases of just war theory: jus ad bellum, jus in bello, and jus post bellum. This examination aims to determine the level of compliance with jus cogens international law norms in the historical and political context of the Cyprus issue, as well as the developments before, during, and after the 1974 Peace Operation. Consequently, it has been determined that the 1974 Peace Operation adhered to the jus cogens rules of international law to the maximum extent. In the source review, a balanced selection of sources was made to objectively evaluate the assessments of both the Turkish and Greek Cypriot sides on the issue. This study is qualitative in nature, employing both inductive and deductive methods.‎

Improving the Safety of UN Peacekeepers through Data-Driven Training

Abstract Peace operations personnel are often targeted while on mission by armed groups and individual actors seeking to cause harm. This paper outlines recent events driving force-protection concerns, analyzes trends in peacekeeper fatalities, and proposes steps for improving force-protection research and training in the future. Among our recommendations are continued efforts to monitor and evaluate the experiences of peacekeeping personnel, including but not limited to violent incidents on mission that result in fatalities to peacekeepers or civilians. With that, broadening access to anonymized incident data from the field would facilitate both research and training teams and ultimately allow troop contributing countries (tcc s) to better target the specific needs of their deployed units. Our recommendations are built upon a decade of experience providing pre-deployment force protection training to tcc s through the Identifying Threats in Peacekeeping Environments program. The best way to help personnel stay safe on mission is through an understanding of current trends in the field; improving access to incident data would dramatically help stakeholders understand the points of impact for peacekeeper safety so they can ultimately help deployed personnel stay safe.

Leadership Agency in UN Peace Operations

ABSTRACT There is a growing interest in the role of individual mission leaders in UN peace operations in peacekeeping studies. However, the concept of ‘agency’ has remained latent in much of this literature. This omission presents a risk of concept stretching and concept ambiguity as scholars continue to explore this topic. In this paper, I analyse the different ways in which the agency of mission leaders has been (implicitly) conceptualized thus far and argue that the existing literature pays insufficient attention to how the scope for individual agency can be context-dependent. Furthermore, I contend that mission leaders are too rarely seen as real human beings, with personalities, background experiences and values. I build on sociological and principal/agent-theories to develop the concept of ‘personal identity’ and then formulate a set of conditions under which the room for individual agency in UN peace operations is enhanced or reduced. Subsequently, I demonstrate the added value of this approach by conducting an illustrative case study of Patrick Cammaert’s tenure as Commander of MONUC’s Eastern Division between 2005-2007. The article shows that investigating the interaction between structure and real-world agents leads to a more holistic and sophisticated understanding of the behaviour of peacekeeping leadership.

The future of UN peace operations: pragmatism, pluralism or statism?

Abstract Although United Nations peace missions have played an important conflict management role for decades, a backlash against the post-Cold War model of ‘liberal peacebuilding’ and other recent developments have called their future into doubt. Some observers contend that a ‘pragmatic turn’ is now underway—a shift away from ambitious plans to transform war-torn societies into liberal democracies and towards more modest and realistic goals. Whether ‘pragmatism’ offers a viable alternative framework for peacebuilding, however, is less clear. This article challenges key assumptions of the pragmatic approach to peacebuilding, including the notion that UN missions can be ‘agnostic’ about the governance arrangements of societies that host these operations, as some proponents of pragmatism recommend. Historical case-studies show that such assumptions are integral features of collective conflict management systems, including UN peace missions. Moreover, a close examination of the pragmatist approach reveals that it, too, is based on such assumptions—namely, that building peace requires the promotion of pluralist societies and states. Pluralist peacebuilding, the article concludes, could offer a compelling foundation for future UN missions in an era of rising statist–authoritarianism, but developing this approach will first require discarding pragmatism's pretence of ideological agnosticism.

Responsibility Regimes for International Peace Operations, written by Eleonora Branca

Responsibility Regimes for International Peace Operations, written by Eleonora Branca

Aid allocation across the humanitarian-development-peace nexus: the role of fragility as a donors’ motive

Fragility continues to present major challenges to achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). International aid, particularly the Official Development Assistance (ODA), is a critical source of finance to deliver humanitarian assistance, development projects, and peace operations in fragile contexts. This study analyses if and how donors are motivated by fragility in their aid allocation across the humanitarian-development-peace nexus. Employing the random-effect Tobit method, the role of fragility as a donors’ motive is analysed alongside three conventional categories of motives: self-interest, recipients’ needs, and merit. The empirical analysis demonstrates an association between aid allocation across the nexus and fragility, but also a great degree of heterogeneity depending on the donor and the pillar of the nexus. It also detects a significant difference between how the state of fragility correlates with aid allocation and how the degree of fragility does so.

Interpretive Agency, Change, and the Role of Individuals in UN Peace Operations

ABSTRACT Much of what peacekeepers do on a daily basis is best understood through the lens of practice, and practice theorists have begun to explore the process by which practice change occurs in international organizations. Yet practice theory’s focus on tacit knowledge and ‘unthinking’ action raises important questions about agency. How can individual peacekeepers change their daily practices amid the myriad structural factors that dispose them to act in particular ways? Do changes in peacekeeping practice require conscious reflection on their part? Drawing on evidence from UN missions in Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, and the DRC, I argue that changes in practice often occur through interpretive agency as individuals determine what rules require in practice. Interpretive agency takes two distinct forms: practical agency and reflective agency. Reflective agency involves conscious deliberation, while practical agency occurs when peacekeepers make unthinking adjustments to existing practices. This article identifies conditions that are conducive to each type of interpretive agency, highlighting the impact of crisis, bureaucratic hierarchy, and the role of specialized knowledge. These findings improve our understanding of how individual agency shapes UN peace operations, while also contributing to wider debates about change and continuity in global governance.

Persistent Practices? Understanding Continuity and Change in SRSGs’ Leadership of UN Peace Operations*

ABSTRACT In UN peace operations, the special representatives (SRSGs) as heads of mission take on a range of complex, sometimes unfathomable, tasks. This article addresses the question of how individuals influence UN peace operations by focusing on SRSGs who served as heads of two major peace operations and who carried their pre-SRSG experience into their first tenure as SRSG and their experience from that tenure into their second tenure. Thus, the aim is to understand how professional experience influences continuity and change in SRSGs’ leadership practices when leading peace operations. The analysis is grounded in an interview-based approach and informed by a practice-centered approach. The case studies examined here are Alan C. Doss, who served as SRSG of UNMIL and MONUC, and Ellen M. Løj, who served as SRSG of UNMIL and UNMISS. The identified practices of both SRSGs show that certain areas were particularly influenced by experiences from their career paths: (1) mission administration, (2) working with the mission leadership team, (3) interacting with host-state actors, and (4) interactions with UN headquarters. Tracing how practices have been pursued in different contexts provides insights into the influence of individual experiences on UN peace operations and the dynamics of practice internalization.

Using force to protect civilians: successes and failures of United Nations peace operations in Africa

Using force to protect civilians: successes and failures of United Nations peace operations in Africa

United Nations Peace Operations and International Relations Theory Edited by Kseniya Oksamytna and John Karlsrud

A comprehensive review of the book United Nations (UN) Peace Operations and International Relations Theory, edited by Kseniya Oksamytna and John Karlsrud, helps analyze the challenging notion that International Relations (IR) theories are impersonal and abstract. The book offers insights into international conflict resolution through the practical application of various IR theories.

Human Security and Accountability in the Central African Republic: A Bridge Half-Crossed

Abstract In its rhetoric, the United Nations foregrounds the importance of individual accountability for human rights violations. It also emphasizes the necessity of transitional justice in which individual survivors deserve recognition for their suffering and should take a central place in decisions on what happens after periods of violent unrest. These commitments are in line with the central tenets of human security, another key discursive element of the UN’s work, which calls for putting people front and center in the organization’s conflict response. People working in and on UN peace operations have put considerable effort into mainstreaming this approach in the organization’s accountability work. However, this commitment runs into several obstacles on the ground. This paper analyzes these challenges in the context of the UN’s efforts to support transitional justice efforts in the Central African Republic, where the UN has an exceptionally extensive mandate to promote accountability for atrocity crimes.

Peace Operations and Human Security

Peace Operations and Human Security

How peacekeeping has reshaped Latin America

Abstract The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH, 2004–2017) was an unprecedented effort of Latin American peacekeeping. Nine countries contributed the majority of troops to the mission in which regional governments sought to handle a security crisis in their neighbourhood rather than leaving the lead to western countries. However, when the mission came to an end after thirteen years, peacekeeping faded from the regional and national security agendas, with the exception of Uruguay. How and why did MINUSTAH impact the region's current hesitation to engage in peace operations? To answer this question, the article draws on assemblage theory and uses data from policy documents, academic literature and previous research on peacekeeping in Latin America. I argue that contrary to what Latin America's current, limited peacekeeping engagement suggests, MINUSTAH produced significant changes in the region's political landscape. While these could have paved the way to greater involvement in peace operations, however, parallel developments shaped Latin American security policies and military planning at the expense of the region's future participation in UN peacekeeping. The article adds to existing scholarship by probing the conditions that drive the temporality of assemblages and provides a new perspective on Latin American peacekeeping.

Peacekeeping armies: how the politics of peace operations shape military organizations

Abstract What is a ‘peacekeeping army’? Why do some states develop them? And what influence do they have on military organizations, their soldiers and the practices of peacekeeping more broadly? This article provides the first attempt to theorize this concept and illustrate its utility with reference to specific country examples. We develop the concept by drawing on a comparative analysis of troop contributions to peace operations over time, an examination of national security documents and institutional military reforms. Specifically, we define a ‘peacekeeping army’ as one which has undertaken institutional reforms to regularly perform the military functions of peacekeeping at a relatively large scale compared to the size of its active force and has prioritized international peacekeeping as one of its top-tier priorities. We find that political, economic and institutional motives for establishing a ‘peacekeeping army’ are more important than normative and security factors. Once established, a ‘peacekeeping army’ generates significant, and diverse effects on the soldiers, the military organization, the government and potentially the practices of peacekeeping more broadly. The conclusion summarizes our main findings and identifies implications for policy.

Empowering Change: The Evolving Role of Women in NATO-led Stability Operations

The participation of women in peacekeeping and stability operations, particularly within the framework of NATO missions, has evolved significantly over the years. This article explores the changing role of women in NATO-led operations, tracing the historical trajectory from the Revolutionary War to present-day peacekeeping efforts. It examines the integration of women into peacekeeping plans, the significance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security, and current initiatives aimed at enhancing women's participation in stability operations. Despite progress, persistent challenges and barriers continue to hinder the full realization of gender equality within peacekeeping missions. The article concludes with recommendations for advancing women's roles in peace operations, emphasizing the importance of concerted efforts by international organizations, member states, and civil society to promote gender mainstreaming and women's empowerment in conflict resolution and peacebuilding endeavors.

From Confrontation to Cooperation: Describing Non-State Armed Group–UN Interactions in Peace Operations

Abstract In various conflict contexts where the state is unable to maintain security and public order, non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and the United Nations (UN) conduct their activities alongside one another. While previous research has focused on hostile relations between the UN and NSAGs, less attention has been given to collaborative interactions. This paper aims to address this research gap by formulating a novel conceptual typology of NSAG–UN interactions in the context of a peace operation. The typological framework comprises two-dimensions: firstly, the thematic field of interaction including human rights, humanitarian needs and governance, security, and political processes and, secondly, the nature of interaction ranging from confrontation to cooperation. Based on the typology, interaction activities between the UN and NSAGs in two peacekeeping operations—the UN Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI) and the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA)—are systematically documented and described. While both cases show confrontation in the security field, UNOCI also commonly cooperated with NSAGs on security-related issues; MINUSMA instead cooperated with NSAGs primarily regarding the political process. The analysis further proposes factors that may explain such variation, including institutional arrangements and NSAG characteristics. The conceptual framework presented in this paper is crucial in advancing knowledge about an empirical phenomenon that we know little about and that has important implications for different forms of “local” engagement in peace operations and the effectiveness of UN policies and practices.

In Pursuit of Excellence: Analysing the Indispensable Nature of Conduct and Discipline of Nepali Army in UN Peace Support Missions

Nepal is currently ranked 2nd among the Troop Contributing Countries (TCCs) in United Nations Peace Support Operations. In this context, this paper examines the contribution of the Nepali Army's military conduct and discipline to the effectiveness of UN Peace Support Missions. The theoretical foundations delve into pertinent theories, particularly emphasizing Kevin S. Donohue's concepts of Discipline A (voluntary, value-based Attitudes) and Discipline B (externally enforced Behavioral responses) within the military framework. Maintaining conduct and discipline in UN peace operations is essential for ensuring the credibility and legitimacy of these missions. Therefore, prior UN reports and the Secretary General's Special Bulletin from 2015 to 2022 are comparatively analyzed to reflect on occurrences of misconduct involving peacekeepers from TCCs. Likewise, a quantitative comparative analysis assesses the status of the Nepali Army in terms of military conduct analyzing the rate of allegations of misconducts against it. The study employs descriptive statistics to analyze the status of misconduct allegations including that of serious misconduct to advocate for a stronger integration of military conduct with UN peacekeeping mandates, aiming to enhance overall effectiveness and elevate ethical standards in international peace operations. The findings underscore Nepal's exemplary practices in fostering both Discipline B and Discipline A within its peacekeeping forces. The paper concludes by demonstrating the substantial positive impact of disciplined behaviour on mission outcomes

The Role Of The Indonesian National Armed Forces In World Peace Operations

The Role Of The Indonesian National Armed Forces In World Peace Operations