Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Research Articles

Developing Theory of Mind in social domains: A cross‐sequential study of Chinese rural preschoolers

AbstractTheory of Mind (ToM), the ability to understand others' thoughts and emotions, is crucial for social interaction. However, few longitudinal studies have explored ToM development within different social domains, particularly among rural populations. To address this gap, we conducted a study with 113 preschoolers aged 3–5 years from rural China. We assessed ToM development in different social domains using false belief tasks at three different time points with semester intervals, and we evaluated their performance on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and inhibitory control (IC). Results showed that ToM development trajectories differ across domains, with moral and social‐conventional domains developing earlier than the personal domain. Additionally, while general cognitive skills such as language and IC are associated with ToM development across these domains, they do not significantly predict it. This study enhances our understanding of ToM development by emphasizing the importance of including rural samples in developmental research.

An Investigation of the Effects of Dialogic Reading Program Applied in Children s Homes on Children s Language Development

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of dialogic reading education given to care staff working in children's homes on the language development of children in need of protection and the views of care staff on dialogic reading. The study was designed using the explanatory sequential mixed method in which quantitative and qualitative research methods were used together. The study group consisted of 9 children aged 5-8 years living in children's homes and 6 care staff responsible for their care. Girls and boys live in separate homes, and the average age of the children is 6 years and 7 months. One of the participating care staff members is male, and the remaining five are female. The ages of the participating staff range between 35 and 40. First, dialogic reading training was given to a total of six care staff members working in two different care homes. The training was completed in two sessions. After the training, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was administered to the children in the children’s homes as a pre-test. The care staff who completed the training were asked to read books to the children for four weeks using the dialogic reading technique. After the application, the same test was administered as a post-test. Following the quantitative data collection, qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with the care staff. As a result of the study, a significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-tests of the children who received dialogic reading. In addition, the participant staff stated that dialogic reading increased children's interest in book, developed various skills in children, and contributed to their professional development. This study recommends that care staff in children's homes receive training on dialogic reading and that this method be integrated into daily practice. Additionally, future studies with larger sample sizes and control groups should be conducted, and early interventions for language development in early childhood should be prioritized.

The "what" and "when" of language input to children: Linguistic and temporal predictors of vocabulary in 3-year-olds.

The quantity, quality, and complexity of language input are important for children's language development. This study examined how the detailed timing of this input relates to children's vocabulary at 3 years of age in 64 mother-child dyads (male = 28; female = 36; White = 69%, Black = 31%). Acoustical analysis of turn taking in mother-child dialogue found that more consistently timed maternal responses (lower response latency variability) were associated (r = .42, p < .001) with higher vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, third edition) scores. In mothers with consistently timed responses, the complexity (mean length of utterance) of their child-directed speech significantly predicted (r = .53, p = .002) their children's vocabulary. This suggests that predictably timed contingent maternal responses provide an important learning cue that supports language development beyond the content of language input itself. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

High-gamma modulation language mapping and cognitive outcomes after epilepsy surgery.

We evaluated changes in cognitive domains after neurosurgical lesioning of cortical sites with significant high-gamma power modulations (HGM) during a visual naming task, although these sites were found language-negative on standard-of-care electrical stimulation mapping (ESM). In drug-resistant epilepsy patients who underwent resection/ablation after stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG), we computed reliable change indices (RCIs) from a battery of presurgical and 1-year postsurgical neuropsychological assessments. We modeled RCIs as a function of lesioning even one HGM language site, number of HGM language sites lesioned, and the magnitude of naming-related HGM. The analyses were adjusted for 1-year seizure freedom, operated hemispheres, and the volumes of surgical lesions. In 37 patients with 4455 SEEG electrode contacts (1839 and 2616 contacts in right and left hemispheres, respectively), no ESM language sites were lesioned. Patients with lesioning of even one HGM language site showed significantly lower RCIs for Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), working memory, and verbal learning immediate (VLI) scores. RCI declines with higher number of HGM language sites lesioned were seen in PPVT (slope [β] = -.10), working memory (β = -.10), VLI (β = -.14), and letter-word identification (LWI; β = -.14). No neuropsychological domains improved after lesioning of HGM language sites. Significant effects of the HGM magnitude at lesioned sites were seen on working memory (β = -.31), story memory immediate (β = -.27), verbal learning recognition (β = -.18), LWI (β = -.16), spelling (β = -.49), and passage comprehension (β = -.33). Because working memory was significantly affected in all three analyses, patients with maximal working memory decline were examined post hoc, revealing that all such patients had HGM naming sites lesioned in the posterior quadrants of either hemisphere. HGM language mapping should be used as an adjunct to ESM in clinical practice and may help counsel patients/families about postsurgical cognitive deficits.

Speech Recognition and Spatial Hearing in Young Adults With Down Syndrome: Relationships With Hearing Thresholds and Auditory Working Memory.

Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) have a higher incidence of hearing loss (HL) compared with their peers without developmental disabilities. Little is known about the associations between HL and functional hearing for individuals with DS. This study investigated two aspects of auditory functions, "what" (understanding the content of sound) and "where" (localizing the source of sound), in young adults with DS. Speech reception thresholds in quiet and in the presence of interferers provided insight into speech recognition, that is, the "what" aspect of auditory maturation. Insights into "where" aspect of auditory maturation were gained from evaluating speech reception thresholds in colocated versus separated conditions (quantifying spatial release from masking) as well as right versus left discrimination and sound location identification. Auditory functions in the "where" domain develop during earlier stages of cognitive development in contrast with the later developing "what" functions. We hypothesized that young adults with DS would exhibit stronger "where" than "what" auditory functioning, albeit with the potential impact of HL. Considering the importance of auditory working memory and receptive vocabulary for speech recognition, we hypothesized that better speech recognition in young adults with DS, in quiet and with speech interferers, would be associated with better auditory working memory ability and receptive vocabulary. Nineteen young adults with DS (aged 19 to 24 years) participated in the study and completed assessments on pure-tone audiometry, right versus left discrimination, sound location identification, and speech recognition in quiet and with speech interferers that were colocated or spatially separated. Results were compared with published data from children and adults without DS and HL, tested using similar protocols and stimuli. Digit Span tests assessed auditory working memory. Receptive vocabulary was examined using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Fifth Edition. Seven participants (37%) had HL in at least 1 ear; 4 individuals had mild HL, and 3 had moderate HL or worse. Participants with mild or no HL had ≥75% correct at 5° separation on the discrimination task and sound localization root mean square errors (mean ± SD: 8.73° ± 2.63°) within the range of adults in the comparison group. Speech reception thresholds in young adults with DS were higher than all comparison groups. However, spatial release from masking did not differ between young adults with DS and comparison groups. Better (lower) speech reception thresholds were associated with better hearing and better auditory working memory ability. Receptive vocabulary did not predict speech recognition. In the absence of HL, young adults with DS exhibited higher accuracy during spatial hearing tasks as compared with speech recognition tasks. Thus, auditory processes associated with the "where" pathways appear to be a relative strength than those associated with "what" pathways in young adults with DS. Further, both HL and auditory working memory impairments contributed to difficulties in speech recognition in the presence of speech interferers. Future larger-sized samples are needed to replicate and extend our findings.

Neurodevelopmental Outcomes of Preschoolers with Antenatal Zika Virus Exposure Born in the United States.

Neurodevelopmental outcomes for preschool-age children in the United States with in utero Zika virus (ZIKV) exposure have not yet been reported. We performed a case-control study to assess whether children exposed in utero to ZIKV have abnormal neurodevelopment at age 4-5 years compared to unexposed controls. Thirteen ZIKV-exposed cases that did not have microcephaly or other specific features of congenital Zika syndrome and 12 controls were evaluated between ages 4-5 years. Child neurodevelopment was assessed using the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory, Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Bracken School Readiness Assessment (BSRA), and Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC). Caregivers answered questions on the child's medical history and family demographics. Cases and controls were evaluated at mean (SD) ages 4.9 (0.3) and 4.8 (0.4) years, respectively. Caregivers reported more behavior and mood problems in cases than controls. MABC scores showed more gross and fine motor coordination difficulties among cases than controls. Controls trended towards higher performance on concepts underlying school readiness on BSRA. Three cases had a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder or global developmental delay. Continued follow-up through school age for children with prenatal ZIKV exposure is needed to understand the impact of in utero ZIKV exposure on motor coordination, cognition, executive function, and academic achievement.

Instrumento MAIN para evaluar las habilidades narrativas en niños hispanohablantes con trastorno del desarrollo del lenguaje (TDL)

IntroductionDevelopmental language disorder (DLD) involves the impairment of one or more linguistic dimensions. It has been observed that these children present difficulties in oral narratives at the microstructure and macrostructure levels, although there is much disparity in the assessment tools used in research. The aim of this study is to assess the narrative skills of Spanish-speaking children with DLD by analyzing oral narratives in terms of narrative microstructure and macrostructure and phonological and morphological errors. MethodThe sample consisted of 24 children: 12 with DLD and 12 with typical development (TD) aged between 7 and 11years. They were administered CELF-5, Raven's 2, and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test to assess the level of linguistic and cognitive competence and the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN), a narrative assessment tool. These oral narratives were transcribed and analyzed with the CHILDES project tools and coded with the PREP-CORP system. ResultsStatistically significant differences were observed between both groups in the number of utterances, mean utterance length and number of events narrated, as well as in the frequency of morphological and phonological errors. ConclusionsOral narratives of DLD children using the MAIN tool are shorter and less detailed than those of TD, as well as with a higher number of phonological and morphological errors. Therefore, the MAIN could be a suitable clinical tool for the assessment of the narrative skills of DLD children.

Associations of childhood, adolescence, and midlife cognitive function with DNA methylation age acceleration in midlife.

Prior studies showed increased age acceleration (AgeAccel) is associated with worse cognitive function among old adults. We examine the associations of childhood, adolescence and midlife cognition with AgeAccel based on DNA methylation (DNAm) in midlife. Data are from 359 participants who had cognition measured in childhood and adolescence in the Child Health and Development study, and had cognition, blood based DNAm measured during midlife in the Disparities study. Childhood cognition was measured by Raven's Progressive Matrices and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). Adolescent cognition was measured only by PPVT. Midlife cognition included Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR), Verbal Fluency (VF), Digit Symbol (DS). AgeAccel measures including Horvath, Hannum, PhenoAge, GrimAge and DunedinPACE were calculated from DNAm. Linear regressions adjusted for potential confounders were utilized to examine the association between each cognitive measure in relation to each AgeAccel. There are no significant associations between childhood cognition and midlife AgeAccel. A 1-unit increase in adolescent PPVT, which measures crystalized intelligence, is associated with 0.048-year decrease of aging measured by GrimAge and this association is attenuated after adjustment for adult socioeconomic status. Midlife crystalized intelligence measure WTAR is negatively associated with PhenoAge and DunedinPACE, and midlife fluid intelligence measure (DS) is negatively associated with GrimAge, PhenoAge and DunedinPACE. AgeAccel is not associated with VF in midlife. In conclusion, our study showed the potential role of cognitive functions at younger ages in the process of biological aging. We also showed a potential relationship of both crystalized and fluid intelligence with aging acceleration.

Prenatal maternal Inflammation, childhood cognition and adolescent depressive symptoms

BackgroundAccumulating evidence indicates that higher prenatal maternal inflammation is associated with increased depression risk in adolescent and adult-aged offspring. Prenatal maternal inflammation (PNMI) may increase the likelihood for offspring to have lower cognitive performance, which, in turn, may heighten risk for depression onset. Therefore, this study explored the potential mediating role of childhood cognitive performance in the relationship between PNMI and adolescent depressive symptoms in offspring. MethodsParticipants included 696 mother-offspring dyads from the Child Health and Development Studies (CHDS) cohort. Biomarkers of maternal inflammation [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) and soluble TNF receptor-II (sTNF-RII)] were assayed from first (T1) and second trimester (T2) sera. Childhood (ages 9–11) cognitive performance was assessed via standardized Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), a measure of receptive vocabulary correlated with general intelligence. Adolescent (ages 15–17) depressive symptoms were assessed via self-report. ResultsThere were no significant associations between T1 biomarkers and childhood PPVT or adolescent depressive symptoms. Higher T2 IL1-RA was directly associated with lower childhood PPVT (b = -0.21, SE = 0.08, t = -2.55, p = 0.01), but not with adolescent depressive symptoms. T2 IL-6 was not directly associated with childhood PPVT, but higher T2 IL-6 was directly associated at borderline significance with greater depressive symptoms in adolescence (b = 0.05, SE = 0.03, t = 1.96, p = 0.05). Lower childhood PPVT predicted significantly higher adolescent depressive symptoms (b = -0.07, SE = 0.02, t = -2.99, p < 0.01). There was a significant indirect effect of T2 IL-1RA on adolescent depressive symptoms via childhood PPVT (b = 0.03, 95 % CI = 0.002–0.03) indicating a partially mediated effect. No significant associations were found with T2 sTNF-RII nor IL-8. ConclusionsLower childhood cognitive performance, such as that indicated by a lower PPVT score, represents a potential mechanism through which prenatal maternal inflammation contributes to adolescent depression risk in offspring.

The long-term negative impact of childhood stroke on language.

This study aims to investigate the long-term language outcome in children with unilateral childhood stroke in comparison to those with perinatal strokes and typically developing individuals and to explore the impact of lesion-specific modifiers. We examined nine patients with childhood stroke, acquired between 0;2 and 16;1 years (CHILD; 3 female, median = 13.5 years, 6 left-sided), 23 patients with perinatal strokes (PERI; 11 female, median = 12.5 years, 16 left-sided), and 33 age-matched typically developing individuals (CONTROL; 15 female, median = 12.33 years). The language outcome was assessed using age-appropriate tasks of the Potsdam Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (P-ITPA) or the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). For group comparisons, study-specific language z-scores were calculated. Non-verbal intelligence was assessed using the Test of Non-verbal Intelligence (TONI-4), language lateralization with functional MRI, and lesion size with MRI-based volumetry. All four patients with childhood stroke who initially presented with aphasic symptoms recovered from aphasia. Patients with childhood stroke showed significantly lower language scores than those in the control group, but their scores were similar to those of the patients with perinatal stroke, after adjusting for general intelligence (ANCOVA, language z-score CHILD = -0.30, PERI = -0.38, CONTROL = 0.42). Among the patients with childhood stroke, none of the possible modifying factors, including lesion side, correlated significantly with the language outcome. Childhood stroke, regardless of the affected hemisphere, can lead to chronic language deficits, even though affected children show a "full recovery." The rehabilitation of children and adolescents with childhood stroke should address language abilities, even after the usually quick resolution of clear aphasic symptoms.

Insights into Rett Syndrome girls' receptive vocabulary through eye movements and parental perception

ObjectiveThis study evaluated the receptive vocabulary of girls diagnosed with Rett Syndrome (RS) by employing eye-tracking technology and examined how these objective measures compared with parents' perceptions of their daughters' language abilities. MethodFourteen girls with RS and eleven typically developing peers participated. Instruments included the Kerr Scale, a parental questionnaire on communication skills, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - PPVT-4, and eye-tracking equipment. The PPVT-4's initial 12 cards, each displaying four images, were presented on screen for 5 s for the child's initial inspection. Subsequently, the same card was shown for 5 s with instructions to identify the picture matching the word, repeated three times in a randomized order. ResultsEye-tracking assessments revealed that girls with RS with less severe symptoms, performed below typically developing peers with aged 3–4 years. The number of eye fixations emerged as a reliable metric for assessing their performance. A positive correlation was found between parental reports of their daughters' vocabulary knowledge and their ability to identify the correct stimulus, suggesting comprehension and active engagement in the testing process. ConclusionThis study presents a pioneering approach by combining parental perceptions with eye-tracking measures to assess receptive vocabulary in girls diagnosed with Rett Syndrome. Despite showing lower performance levels compared to significantly younger peers, the findings suggest that these individuals use less effectively eye contact as a mode of communication.

Clinical Characteristics, Developmental Trajectory, and Caregiver Burden of Patients With Creatine Transporter Deficiency (SLC6A8).

Creatine transporter deficiency (CTD) is a rare X-linked genetic disorder characterized by intellectual disability (ID). We evaluated the clinical characteristics and trajectory of patients with CTD and the impact of the disease on caregivers to identify relevant endpoints for future therapeutic trials. As part of a French National Research Program, patients with CTD were included based on (1) a pathogenic SLC6A8 variant and (2) ID and/or autism spectrum disorder. Families and patients were referred by the physician who ordered the genetic analysis through Reference Centers of ID from rare causes and inherited metabolic diseases. After we informed the patients and their parents/guardians about the study, all of them gave written consent and were included. A control group of age-matched and sex-matched patients with Fragile X syndrome was also included. Physical examination, neuropsychological assessments, and caregiver impact were assessed. All data were analyzed using R software. Thirty-one patients (27 male, 4 female) were included (25/31 aged 18 years or younger). Most of the patients (71%) had symptoms at <24 months of age. The mean age at diagnosis was 6.5 years. Epilepsy occurred in 45% (mean age at onset: 8 years). Early-onset behavioral disorder occurred in 82%. Developmental trajectory was consistently delayed (fine and gross motor skills, language, and communication/sociability). Half of the patients with CTD had axial hypotonia during the first year of life. All patients were able to walk without help, but 7/31 had ataxia and only 14/31 could walk tandem gait. Most of them had abnormal fine motor skills (27/31), and most of them had language impairment (30/31), but 12/23 male patients (52.2%) completed the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Approximately half (14/31) had slender build. Most of them needed nursing care (20/31), generally 1-4 h/d. Adaptive assessment (Vineland) confirmed that male patients with CTD had moderate-to-severe ID. Most caregivers (79%) were at risk of burnout, as shown by Caregiver Burden Inventory (CBI) > 36 (significantly higher than for patients with Fragile X syndrome) with a high burden of time dependence. In addition to clinical endpoints, such as the assessment of epilepsy and the developmental trajectory of the patient, the Vineland scale, PPVT5, and CBI are of particular interest as outcome measures for future trials. ANSM Registration Number 2010-A00327-32.

Differential effects of gender and ethnicity on children’s receptive language scores after a Canadian two-generation preschool program: follow-up to adolescence

ABSTRACT Preschool programs for socially vulnerable children are believed to affect school readiness and language development but infrequently include follow-up to adolescence; observational measurement of receptive vocabulary is rare. The purpose of this longitudinal cohort study (55 children and 41 parents) was to report the trajectory of receptive vocabulary development for socially vulnerable children of diverse ethnicities (Indigenous, other Canadian-born, and Immigrant) who participated in a two-generation preschool program. English receptive vocabulary scores were measured at 5-time points: (a) program intake, (b) program exit, (c) age 7 years, (d) age 10 years, and (e) adolescence, using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – Third Edition (PPVT-III). For all children, PPVT-III scores increased the most between program intake and exit and positive changes were sustained until adolescence. When the sample was examined by gender, PPVT-III scores were higher for boys than girls at all time points. When the sample was examined by ethnicity, other Canadian-born children scored higher than Indigenous and Immigrant children at all time points. Immigrant children scored lowest until age 7 years, and at age 10 years and adolescence scored higher than Indigenous children. Using mixed-effects modeling, PPVT-III scores increased when English was the primary language spoken at home at intake. PPVT-III scores increased slightly as caregiver age and caregiver Adverse Childhood Experiences score increased. PPVT-III scores were lower for Immigrant girls and Indigenous boys than other sub-groups of children. Differential effects of the two-generation preschool program by gender and ethnicity suggest tailoring programming to increase equitability of receptive vocabulary development for immigrant girls and Indigenous boys. Children with intergenerational adversity may require additional support.

Pupils Dilate More to Harder Vocabulary Words than Easier Ones.

Understanding cognitive effort expended during assessments is essential to improving efficiency, accuracy, and accessibility within these assessments. Pupil dilation is commonly used as a psychophysiological measure of cognitive effort, yet research on its relationship with effort expended specifically during language processing is limited. The present study adds to and expands on this literature by investigating the relationships among pupil dilation, trial difficulty, and accuracy during a vocabulary test. Participants (n = 63, Mage = 19.25) completed a subset of trials from the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test while seated at an eye-tracker monitor. During each trial, four colored images were presented on the monitor while a word was presented via audio recording. Participants verbally indicated which image they thought represented the target word. Words were categorized into Easy, Medium, and Hard difficulty. Pupil dilation during the Medium and Hard trials was significantly greater than during the Easy trials, though the Medium and Hard trials did not significantly differ from each other. Pupil dilation in comparison to trial accuracy presented a more complex pattern, with comparisons between accurate and inaccurate trials differing depending on the timing of the stimulus presentation. These results present further evidence that pupil dilation increases with cognitive effort associated with vocabulary tests, providing insights that could help refine vocabulary assessments and other related tests of language processing.

Bilingualism Profile of Boys and Girls from 6 to 9 Years of Age in a Bilingual Educational Institution

The objective of this study was to make approaches towards the construction of a bilingualism profile, and with it an articulated approach program with teachers, parents, and students, and speech therapists that favors better and more important educational performances from early childhood when immersed in a bilingual educational institution. The study was exploratory quantitative and involved the participation of 4 children from a bilingual institution in Bogota between 6 and 9 years of age. Data collection instruments included an interview and the application of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test PPVT-III in Spanish and English. Within the results, it was found that factors such as the school career of the children and the level of mastery and use of the language by the parents have a great influence on the second language performance of the students, which could be considered a profile of bilingualism and thus predict their future school performance and likewise offer actions and programs to avoid major difficulties.

Direct and indirect effects of mother's spatial ability on child's spatial ability: What role does the home environment play?

Individual differences in spatial thinking are predictive of children's math and science achievement and later entry into Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Little is known about whether parent characteristics predict individual differences in children's spatial thinking. This study aims to understand whether, and to what extent, mother's intrinsic (i.e., mental rotation) and extrinsic (i.e., spatial scaling) spatial ability directly and indirectly, via the variation in home spatial environment, predicts children's intrinsic and extrinsic spatial ability. A total of 165 mothers and their 4-6-year-old children were recruited to participate in a remote video session with an experimenter. Mothers were administered a forced-choice Intrinsic Spatial Toy Preference Task gauging their preference for highly spatial versus less spatial toys and asked questions with the Home Intrinsic Spatial Environmental Questionnaire about the frequency with which they engage their child in spatial activities at home. Mothers completed a Mental Rotations Test and a Spatial Scaling Task adapted for adults. Children were administered the Picture Rotation Task, the Spatial Scaling Task, and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Structural equation modeling was used to examine direct and indirect, via home spatial environment and toy choices, influences of mother spatial ability on child spatial ability. Contrary to our predictions, we did not find direct, nor indirect, relations between mother and child spatial ability. These findings suggest that researchers should consider alternative conceptualizations of the early home spatial environment beyond the frequency of spatial play in the home. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The identification of factors that predict individual differences in children's spatial ability is important in order to maximize STEM learning outcomes. Data collection was conducted remotely rather than in traditional preschool or laboratory settings. Contrary to our pre-registered hypotheses, no significant relations between mother spatial ability, the early home spatial environment, and children's development of spatial skills were found. Future research should consider examining the amount of spatial language used in the home or the quality of parent-child interactions during spatial play as potential explanations for individual differences in children's spatial ability.

Revisiting bilingual foreign language learning advantages: The role of extramural exposure

Aims and objectives: Prior research shows that bilingual pupils may have foreign language learning advantages over monolinguals, but evidence is controversial. Investigating English as a foreign language (EFL) in the context of the Netherlands, we hypothesized that the conflicting findings may be partly explained by differences in extramural EFL exposure. We further predicted that amount and length of EFL exposure might moderate the effects of bilingualism on EFL learning and cross-language relationships between English and the previously acquired languages. Approach: Twelve- to 14-year-old Turkish–Dutch bilinguals ( n = 30) and Dutch monolinguals ( n = 31) participated. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was used to measure receptive vocabulary in English, Dutch, and Turkish. Grammatical ability was measured with a sentence repetition task. A questionnaire was used to obtain information on children’s language exposure. Data and analysis: Data were analyzed by means of multilevel linear regression. Amount and length of extramural exposure were used as control variables in the analyses comparing EFL skills of bilinguals and monolinguals. The role of exposure as a moderator of bilingual effects and cross-language relationships was also tested. Findings/conclusions: If differences in exposure were not taken into account, the bilinguals were outperformed by the monolinguals on EFL vocabulary, but not on grammar. However, the between-group difference disappeared once exposure measures were controlled for. Bilinguals with little exposure to English performed worse than monolingual peers, but at higher exposure levels, bilinguals outperformed monolinguals. In the bilingual sample, Dutch vocabulary predicted English vocabulary, but Turkish proficiency did not predict English skills. Originality: This is the first study to include measures of extramural exposure in investigating the effects of bilingualism on EFL learning. Significance/implications: This research shows that differences between monolingual and bilingual EFL learners can be either concealed or inflated if exposure is not controlled for. Furthermore, exposure moderates bilingual effects in EFL learning.

Examining the Relationship Between Multiple Tests of Receptive Vocabulary.

Numerous tasks have been developed to measure receptive vocabulary, many of which were designed to be administered in person with a trained researcher or clinician. The purpose of the current study is to compare a common, in-person test of vocabulary with other vocabulary assessments that can be self-administered. Fifty-three participants completed the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) via online video call to mimic in-person administration, as well as four additional fully automated, self-administered measures of receptive vocabulary. Participants also completed three control tasks that do not measure receptive vocabulary. Pearson correlations indicated moderate correlations among most of the receptive vocabulary measures (approximately r = .50-.70). As expected, the control tasks revealed only weak correlations to the vocabulary measures. However, subsets of items of the four self-administered measures of receptive vocabulary achieved high correlations with the PPVT (r > .80). These subsets were found through a repeated resampling approach. Measures of receptive vocabulary differ in which items are included and in the assessment task (e.g., lexical decision, picture matching, synonym matching). The results of the current study suggest that several self-administered tasks are able to achieve high correlations with the PPVT when a subset of items are scored, rather than the full set of items. These data provide evidence that subsets of items on one behavioral assessment can more highly correlate to another measure. In practical terms, these data demonstrate that self-administered, automated measures of receptive vocabulary can be used as reasonable substitutes of at least one test (PPVT) that requires human interaction. That several of the fully automated measures resulted in high correlations with the PPVT suggests that different tasks could be selected depending on the needs of the researcher. It is important to note the aim was not to establish clinical relevance of these measures, but establish whether researchers could use an experimental task of receptive vocabulary that probes a similar construct to what is captured by the PPVT, and use these measures of individual differences.

Neurodevelopmental assessments used to measure preschoolers' cognitive development in Latin America: a systematic review.

The objective of this study was to systematically review the standardized neurodevelopmental assessments used to study preschool-aged children's cognitive development in Spanish-speaking Latin America. The authors systematically searched PubMed, PsycINFO, and ERIC databases for peer-reviewed articles from Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. Articles were included if they measured cognitive development among children aged 2-6 years using at least one standardized assessment tool; 97 articles were included and reviewed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines to assess their use of these tools. Ninety-seven studies across 13 countries used a total of 41 assessments to measure cognitive development; most widely used were the Wechsler intelligence scales (n = 46/97), particularly the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (n = 23 and 29, respectively). Other common assessments included the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities (n = 9), Raven's Progressive Matrices (n = 9), Child Neuropsychological Assessment (n = 8), and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (n = 7). In regions where normative data for a given assessment were unpublished, authors commonly used norms from the United States, Mexico, or Spain or did not report standard scores in their analyses. The wide range of tools used in these studies presents a challenge for generalizing results when measuring the neurodevelopment of Latin American preschool-aged children. The low availability of normative data for specific regions reveals concerns if some tools are culturally and linguistically appropriate even when Spanish is a common language, particularly in low-resource settings. Future work to forge greater consistency in the use of validated measures, clarity in reporting research methods, and publication of regional normative data would benefit the field.

Desarrollo motor, cognitivo y conductual tras encefalopatía hipóxico-isquémica neonatal

IntroductionThe current neurodevelopmental status of patients with neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) in Spain is unknown. Recent European studies highlight a shift of severe pathology towards mild motor disorders and emotional problems. The aim of this study was to analyse neurodevelopmental outcomes in a cohort of neonates with HIE at age 3years. Patients and methodMulticentre observational study of neonates born at 35 or more weeks of gestation with moderate to severe HIE in 2011-2013 in 12 hospitals in a large Spanish region (91,217m2), with the recruitment extended through 2017 in the coordinating hospital. We analysed the findings of neonatal neuroimaging and neurodevelopmental test scores at 3years (Bayley-III, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and Child Behavior Checklist). The sample included 79 controls with no history of perinatal asphyxia. ResultsSixty-three patients were recruited, of whom 5 (7.9%) were excluded due to other pathology and 14 (24%) died. Of the 44 survivors, 42 (95.5%) were evaluated. Of these 42, 10 (24%) had adverse outcomes (visual or hearing impairment, epilepsy, cerebral palsy or developmental delay). Other detected problems were minor neurological signs in 6 of the 42 (14%) and a higher incidence of emotional problems compared to controls: introversion (10.5% vs. 1.3%), anxiety (34.2% vs. 11.7%) and depression (28.9% vs. 7.8%) (P<.05). The severity of the lesions on neuroimaging was significantly higher in patients with motor impairment (P=.004) or who died or had an adverse outcome (P=.027). ConclusionIn addition to classical sequelae, the follow-up of patients with neonatal HIE should include the diagnosis and treatment of minor motor disorders and social and emotional problems.