Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III Research Articles

Age at first exposure to antibiotics and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood

RationaleViral illnesses in children are common and are frequently treated with antibiotic medication. Antibiotics reduce the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota, leading to poor developmental outcomes.ObjectivesTo investigate the relationship between age at first exposure to antibiotics and cognitive and behavioural development at 4.5 years while controlling for multiple confounders, including otitis media.MethodsStudy participants were 5589 children enrolled in the broadly generalisable Growing Up in New Zealand cohort study, with antibiotic exposure data, maternal antenatal information, and age 4.5-year behaviour and cognitive outcome data. Children were categorised as first exposed to antibiotics according to the following mutually exclusive ages: 0–2 months; 3–5 months; 6–8 months; 9–11 months; 12–54 months or not exposed by 54 months. Developmental outcome measures included the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Luria hand clap task, and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III.ResultsIn univariate analysis, there was an evident dose–response relationship where earlier exposure to antibiotics in the first year of life was associated with behavioural difficulties, lower executive function scores, and lower receptive language ability. After adjusting for confounders, pairwise comparisons showed that first antibiotic exposure between birth and 3 months or between 6 and 9 months was associated with lower receptive vocabulary. Antibiotic exposure at any age prior to 12 months was associated with increases in behavioural difficulties scores at 4.5 years.ConclusionsFollowing adjustment for socioeconomic factors and otitis media, there is evidence that antibiotic exposure during potentially sensitive windows of development is associated with receptive language and behaviour later in childhood.

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population.

To generate normative data for the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the PPVT-III as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. PPVT-III scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except Guatemala and Paraguay. Models showed that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years in all countries, except for Cuba, Peru, and Puerto Rico. Sex affected scores for Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Spain. This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the PPVT-III when used in pediatric populations.

Umbilical cord androgens and estrogens in relation to verbal and nonverbal abilities at age 10 in the general population.

Sex differences in verbal and nonverbal abilities are a contentious area of research. Prenatal steroids have been shown to have masculinizing effects on the brain that may affect the development of nonverbal and verbal abilities in later life. The current study examined a wide range of biologically active sex steroids (both androgens and estrogens) in umbilical cord blood at birth in a large pregnancy cohort in relation to performance on nonverbal (Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices) and verbal (Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-3 and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III) measures at age 10 years. Overall, Androgen and Estrogen composites in cord blood were not found to be predictive of performance on verbal and nonverbal measures at age 10. These data suggest that late gestation sex steroids do not exert a major effect on nonverbal and verbal abilities in middle childhood.

Bilingual preschool children’s second-language vocabulary development: The role of first-language vocabulary skills and second-language talk input

Aims:In this study, we aimed to examine whether five-year-old children with varying first-language (L1) vocabulary skills benefitted differentially from second-language (L2) teacher-led group talk and peer-play talk when acquiring L2 vocabulary in preschool contexts.Design:The participants were 26 bilingual children, speaking Turkish (L1) and Norwegian (L2), who participated in a longitudinal study. At age five, they experienced variability in the amount and diversity of the L2 talk they were exposed to in interactions with teachers and peers.Data and analysis:Preschool L2 talk exposure was assessed by calculating the density of word tokens and word types in video-taped teacher-led group talk and in peer-play talk. The children’s vocabulary skills were assessed in L1 at age five and in L2 at ages four, five, six, seven and 10, using translated versions of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. To obtain a more reliable estimate of the children’s L2 vocabulary skills we used data from all time points to ...

Speech and Language Difficulties Along with Other Child and Family Factors Associated with Health Related Quality of Life of Australian Children

Speech and/or language difficulties (SaLD) can potentially compromise a child’s health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL). Very few studies have examined associations between SaLD, other child and family factors and HRQoL and none have been undertaken in Australia. We explore these associations using data from a nationally representative Australian sample of 4–5 year old children, extracted from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) (n = 4386). The Disability-Stress-Coping Model informed variable selection. Three domains of HRQoL were examined, and assessed on physical, emotional and social functioning subscales of the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL). SaLD measures included parent concern about speech/language (Parents’ Evaluation of Developmental Status) and receptive vocabulary ability (adapted Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III). Multiple regression analyses revealed that various child and family factors representing all constructs from the Disability-Stress-Coping Model were significantly associated with HRQoL. Specifically, HRQoL was positively associated with parental warmth and child’s general health and negatively associated with parent speech/language concerns and maternal depression across all domains. Parents with concerns about their pre-school child’s speech and language rate the quality of their child’s health more poorly across physical, emotional and social domains. Associations between parent speech/language concerns and HRQoL were notable for being apparent in a (non-clinical) population sample and for persisting independent of factors such as maternal depression, parenting style and the child’s general health.

Diet in the early years of life influences cognitive outcomes at 10 years: a prospective cohort study

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between diet during the first 3years of life and cognitive outcomes at 10years of age. The Raine Study is a longitudinal study of 2868 children and their families. Based on the foods reported to be eaten at age one, two and three, an Eating Assessment in Toddlers diet score was developed, consisting of seven components. Cognition was measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III) and the Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices at the 10-year follow-up. Associations were assessed in multivariate regression models. A higher Eating Assessment in Toddlers diet score at age one was associated with higher PPVT-III [β=0.12 (0.05, 0.19), p=0.001] and Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices scores [β=0.17 (0.02, 0.33), p=0.025] at age ten after adjustments. Increased fruit consumption at age one was positively associated, while increased sweetened beverage consumption was negatively associated with cognitive development. Dairy consumption at ages two and three had positive associations with the PPVT-III and at age two with the Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices. A better diet quality during the early years of life may have a positive effect on cognitive ability later in childhood.

Cognitive and linguistic abnormalities in benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes

To assess the cognitive function and language ability in children with benign partial epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes. Twenty-five patients with benign partial epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes were included. They were divided into two subgroups. Group I: 10 patients with rolandic focus who were not treated. Group II: 15 patients with rolandic focus receiving treatment. A third Group of 12 healthy subjects have been studied. All children underwent standardized neuropsychological testing: electroencephalogram recording, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-revised, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III) and Boston Naming Test (BNT), both during active disease (T1) and 2 years after recovery from epilepsy (T2). At T1 evaluation, no significant differences in group I and II patients about general intelligence, when compared with controls, were found. Group I and II patients were impaired with respect to controls in the receptive and expressive vocabulary evaluated with PCVT-III and BNT, respectively. At T2 evaluation, group I and II patients showed a normalization of the language abnormalities. Deficits of speech-related abilities can be detected in children with this type of epilepsy: these dysfunctions seem to be independent of the effects of antiepileptic treatment and are reversible after remission of epilepsy.

Aboriginal Children and Their Caregivers Living with Low Income: Outcomes from a Two-Generation Preschool Program

The development of preschool children of Aboriginal heritage is jeopardized by the inter-generational transmission of risk that has created, and continues to create, social disadvantage. Early intervention programs are intended to mitigate the impact of social disadvantage. Yet, evidence of the effectiveness of these programs for children of Aboriginal heritage is limited. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a two-generation, multi-cultural preschool program on 45 children of Aboriginal heritage and their caregivers. We used a single-group, pretest (program intake)/posttest (program exit) design with follow-up when the children were 7 years old. We used an observational measure of child receptive language (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–III) and caregiver-reported measures of child development (Nipissing District Developmental Screen), risk for child maltreatment (Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory; AAPI), parenting stress (Parenting Stress Index; PSI), self-esteem (Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale; RSE), and life skills (Community Life Skills scale; CLS). Using paired t-tests we found statistically significant increases in child receptive language scores between intake and exit, and repeated-measures ANOVA showed that these improvements were maintained up to age 7 years. For caregivers, Pearson’s correlations demonstrated that risk for child maltreatment, parenting stress, self-esteem, and life skills were stable over time. Results of this study suggest that children of Aboriginal heritage can benefit from participation in a two-generation, multi-cultural preschool program. Their caregivers may have received greater benefit if issues of intergenerational transmission of the negative influences of residential schools were addressed as part of programming.

Two-Questions Vocabulary Assessment: Developing a New Method for Group Testing in Kindergarten through Second Grade

Methods of primary grades vocabulary assessment are inadequate for classroom teachers and researchers because they require one-on-one testing and much time. This study validates a new method of vocabulary assessment for use with a whole classroom at one time. With an individually-administered vocabulary test and a group-administered test created with the same words, we assessed 257 students in K-2 using both methods. Results showed that the group method yielded reasonable correlations with the one-on-one method (r=.69 to .75). This group method can now be used by primary grades teachers and researchers to quickly assess general vocabulary and instructed word meanings. This study describes an effort to validate a new and more practical method for assessing primary-grade vocabulary knowledge, which can be used with groups of students or with whole classes. The authors sought evidence that the method is reasonably accurate when compared with results obtained with a widely used individually administered vocabulary test for primarygrade children. If the new group method, called the “Two-Questions” method, could be shown to yield reasonably valid estimates of word meaning knowledge, it could be used to assess both general vocabulary knowledge and gains in vocabulary taught within the classroom. For this study, we selected word meaning items from the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III, Form A (PPVT-III) (Dunn & Dunn, 1997) for use in the whole class assessment with the Two-Questions method. In each classroom our Two-Questions Vocabulary Measure (TQVM) was first administered to the whole class. The PPVT was then administered individually to those children for whom parental permission had been obtained. Group test results were not known prior to administering the PPVT-III. We assessed 259 students from 24 Kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2 classrooms in three New England elementary schools with both measures to provide validation for the new group assessment method. The students and the schools are described, as are the two measures and their use. The need for the new method of assessing vocabulary for students in grades K–2 and the process used to create the measure are explained. The results of the scores on the group test and their correlation with the scores on the individually administered test are presented. We also discuss how the new Two-Questions method may be used to assess general vocabulary on an occasional basis and vocabulary taught in the classroom on an ongoing basis. Suggestions are provided for improving the method and for using this new assessment method to increase student achievement in reading beyond the primary grades.

A Sleep Habits Questionnaire for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders

Sleep difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders are common, with poor sleep hygiene a contributing factor. We developed the Family Inventory of Sleep Habits to measure sleep hygiene in this population. Its validity and reliability in 2 groups of children aged 4 to 10 years, those with a clinical diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders, and those who are typically developing are described. In both groups, total and modified (reflecting insomnia subscales) scores on the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire showed significant negative correlations with the total score. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III was significantly correlated with total score in the autism spectrum group but not in the typically developing group. Age and socioeconomic status were not correlated with total score in either group. This preliminary work suggests that the Family Inventory of Sleep Habits is a valid and reliable measure of sleep hygiene in autism spectrum disorders.

Literacy, numeracy, and learning in school-aged children identified as having speech and language impairment in early childhood

The progress of a nationally representative sample of 3632 children was followed from early childhood through to primary school, using data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). The aim was to examine the predictive effects of different aspects of communicative ability, and of early vs. sustained identification of speech and language impairment, on children's achievement and adjustment at school. Four indicators identified speech and language impairment: parent-rated expressive language concern; parent-rated receptive language concern; use of speech-language pathology services; below average scores on the adapted Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. School outcomes were assessed by teachers' ratings of language/literacy ability, numeracy/mathematical thinking and approaches to learning. Comparison of group differences, using ANOVA, provided clear evidence that children who were identified as having speech and language impairment in their early childhood years did not perform as well at school, two years later, as their non-impaired peers on all three outcomes: Language and Literacy, Mathematical Thinking, and Approaches to Learning. The effects of early speech and language status on literacy, numeracy, and approaches to learning outcomes were similar in magnitude to the effect of family socio-economic factors, after controlling for child characteristics. Additionally, early identification of speech and language impairment (at age 4–5) was found to be a better predictor of school outcomes than sustained identification (at aged 4–5 and 6–7 years). Parent-reports of speech and language impairment in early childhood are useful in foreshadowing later difficulties with school and providing early intervention and targeted support from speech-language pathologists and specialist teachers.

Variability of Language Abilities of Young 4-Year-Olds who have Williams Syndrome

Variability of Language Abilities of Young 4-Year-Olds who have Williams Syndrome

Independent and interactive effects of iron, lead, and parenting on children's cognitive outcomes

This study examined effects of blood lead < 10 μg/dL, iron, and parenting on children's cognition measured by Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test‐III (PPVT‐III), a measure of receptive vocabulary, and McCarthy Scales of Developmental Abilities (MCSA) verbal (reasoning, receptive and expressive vocabulary) and perceptual (pattern reproduction, conceptual grouping) scales. Participants were 112 children, mean age (SD) = 4.15 (.55) y, attending Head Start in rural Oklahoma. Venous blood samples were analyzed for lead by ICP‐MS and iron status was assessed by serum transferrin receptors. Regressions revealed significant effects of lead on MCSA perceptual scores (R2 = .04) with parental home literacy controlled (R2 = .12) and significant effects of transferrin receptors on PPVT‐III (R2 = .10) and MCSA verbal scores (R2 = .04) with parental home literacy controlled (R2 = .15 and .17, respectively). Permissive parenting (linked to poor nutrition practices) interacted with lead to predict children's MCSA perceptual scores (R2 = .04, p < .05) beyond main effects of lead and permissive parenting (R2 = .08). The interaction was due to a negative relation (β = −.551) between lead and scores for children of highly permissive parents, t(97) = −3.114, p < .01. We conclude researchers should examine parenting and nutrition in research on the impact of low levels of lead on child cognition. Funding: USDA‐CREES Number OKL0 2605.

Longitudinal assessment of cognitive characteristics in Costello syndrome

Costello syndrome encompasses pre- and postnatal medical problems including polyhydramnios, failure to thrive, cardiac complications, and an increased risk for solid tumors. Hypotonia and developmental delay are typical in infancy, and mental retardation can be diagnosed in older patients. Previous studies on the cognitive development in Costello syndrome relied on clinically diagnosed cases. The recent discovery of heterozygous HRAS mutations allows for molecular confirmation of the clinical diagnoses. We report here on cognitive abilities and adaptive behavior in the first cohort of patients with molecularly confirmed diagnoses. Further, this is the first longitudinal assessment of cognitive function in this patient population. Sixteen patients with identified HRAS mutations were tested, and 14 completed the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised. The mean Full-Scale IQ score of 57 (range 30-87) was within the range of mild Mental Retardation. Analysis of test component subsets showed a relative strength in Fluid Reasoning with a mean score of 69 (range 48-98), in the mild range of Mental Retardation. Longitudinal analysis was performed for 12 patients by comparison of data obtained at the first evaluation (T1) to results obtained 2 years later (T2). In these patients intellectual and language abilities remained stable, and no deterioration was seen. We have thus shown that Costello syndrome is a static condition regarding intellectual and language abilities. The Leiter-R Memory Screen indicated functioning in the mildly delayed range for the majority of patients. Adaptive behavior was evaluated using the Vineland tool, and longitudinal data comparison for adaptive behavior showed improvements in Daily Living Skills, Communication, and the Adaptive Behavior Composite. However, these results must be interpreted cautiously as the measuring tool was updated from T1 to T2. Receptive language skills were measured with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III, showing a mean receptive vocabulary standard score of 65 (SD 15) in the Extremely Low range. Expressive language skills, as measured by the Expressive Vocabulary Test (EVT), scored a mean of 51 (SD 14), in the Extremely Low range. However, half of the subjects obtained the lowest possible score on the EVT, demonstrating that this is not the ideal tool for use in this patient population.

Sources of variability in working memory in early childhood: A consideration of age, temperament, language, and brain electrical activity

This study investigated age-related differences in working memory and inhibitory control (WMIC) in 3 1 2 -, 4-, and 4 1 2 -year-olds and how these differences were associated with differences in regulatory aspects of temperament, language comprehension, and brain electrical activity. A series of cognitive control tasks was administered to measure WMIC ability, including the Stroop-like day–night and the yes–no tasks. Baseline and task electroencephalographic data were collected. The Children's Behavior Questionnaire was used to assess caregiver perceptions of temperament with a particular interest in the effortful control and surgency factors, and language comprehension was measured with the Peabody-Picture Vocabulary Test-III. The results of this study demonstrated differential temperament-cognition relations for the three age groups, as positive associations were found between WMIC and effortful control for the 3 1 2 - and 4-year-olds and negative associations were found between WMIC and surgency for the 4 1 2 -year-olds. An increasingly robust relation between WMIC and language comprehension was demonstrated across the three age groups, as well as differential patterns of task-related brain electrical activity.

The effects of a language and literacy intervention on Head Start children and teachers.

A language and literacy intervention was implemented in 10 Head Start classrooms. Teachers were trained in specific book reading and conversation strategies. The focus of the intervention was to train teachers how to increase opportunities for language and vocabulary development in young children. At the end of the year, children in the intervention classrooms performed significantly better than children in the control classrooms on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III and the Expressive One-Word Vocabulary Test (3rd ed.). In addition, teachers in the intervention classrooms used strategies that promoted language development during book reading and other classroom activities. Head Start teachers can be trained to implement strategies that have positive effects on children's language and literacy development.

Mild traumatic brain injury: Effects on naming in word retrieval and discourse

Primary objective: To investigate differences between a group with mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and a control group relative to standard scores and error type during word retrieval in both naming and discourse tasks.Methods and procedures: Ten participants with MTBI were age-, gender- and education-matched with 10 participants without injury. Pre-experimental tasks for the participants with MTBI included the Scales of Cognitive Ability for Traumatic Brain Injuryand the Raven's Coloured Progressive Matricesand both groups received the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. Experimental tasks included the Test of Adolescent/Adult Word Findingand the Test of Word Finding in Discourse.Main outcomes and results: Few participants (three on each experimental task) demonstrated psychometrically-based word retrieval deficits (standard score < 85); however, a significant difference in performance for the TAWFas compared to the TWFDwas observed between groups. More word finding errors occurred with confrontational naming than with discourse tasks for both groups, with latency as the primary error type.Conclusions: Confrontational naming tasks may be more sensitive to subtle language difficulties occurring after MTBI. The study of adults with MTBI and their performance on semantically-based tasks offers important information for the advancement of therapeutic intervention and education.

The effect of intrapartum fever on early childhood behavior

JOHN SMULIAN, JULIEN TEITLER, LENNA NEPOMNYASCHY, CANDE ANANTH, NANCY REICHMAN, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School/Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Columbia University, Social Work, New York, New York, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Pediatrics, New Brunswick, New Jersey OBJECTIVE: Clinical chorioamnionitis is associated with an increased risk for major neurologic disabilities in children such as cerebral palsy. There is little data on other neurobehavioral outcomes. We examined whether more subtle behavioral outcomes in early childhood differ based on the presence or absence of intrapartum fever. STUDY DESIGN: Subjects were identified from women enrolled in the national multicenter longitudinal Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. This is a cohort study of women recruited from 20 cities (populations O200,000) delivering in 75 hospitals across the United States. Women delivering in the context of the Fragile Family (unwed) were over sampled and were enrolled at the time of delivery. Subjects were contacted 3 years after the delivery for a follow-up evaluation. Standard tests of behavioral, emotional and cognitive development were administered, which included the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT). Measures of child behavior and function were compared based on the presence or absence of intrapartum fever. Analyses (odds ratios, OR) were adjusted for maternal age, race, parity, smoking, marital status and child’s age in months. RESULTS: Of the 2058 subjects studied, 8% (168) had an intrapartum fever. There were non-significant trends for children from intrapartum fever cases to be more withdrawn, with more withdrawal scores that were O75th centile (OR 1.56, P=0.13), fewer aggressive behavior scores that were O75th centile (OR 0.58, P=0.18) and lower PPVT scores (P=0.15). Scores for anxiety/depression, problematic behavior, and cruelty to animals were similar. Results were unchanged when stratified on gestational age (term, preterm !37 weeks and preterm !32 weeks). CONCLUSION: There were no clear patterns of problems with behavioral, emotional and cognitive development in children born to mothers with intrapartum fever when assessed at 3 years of age. Additional follow-up will help determine whether other findings develop as these children grow older.

Using Scientific Knowledge to Inform Preschool Assessment: Making the Case for “Empirical Validity”

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 crystallized the concern for accountability in education. National testing was mandated as a way to improve the “broken” educational system. Publicly funded early education programs were not spared from such testing. While the positive effects of high-quality early education on children’s later school achievement is well demonstrated, too many early care and educational settings in the United States are of minimal or poor quality. Accountability is clearly important for increasing the quality of our early childhood programs, however, it is not yet evident how best to formulate a standard of accountability that reflects the body of knowledge we have gained concerning how young children learn. In this report, we propose two major thrusts designed to bring about a more scientifically informed accountability system: reconceptualizing the ways in which we think about the validity of our test instruments, and reconceptualizing markers of development from products of learning (performance standards) to processes of learning. We introduce the term “empirical validity” to draw attention to the fact that assessments should be built on current empirical work in the various developmental domains. This report focuses on the domains of language and literacy, two areas of major concern for the Federal Head Start program and for which there is an abundance of current research. This body of knowledge provides many examples illustrating how an emphasis on process rather than product can be vital for improving the quality of education. For example, although vocabulary is centrally important and psychometrically adequate tests of early vocabulary exist, these tests do not measure essential aspects of word learning that have been identified as predictive of later language and reading success in early language learning literature. Our case study of language and literacy illustrates how today’s developmental science offers a new knowledge that can be strategically incorporated in assessments for empirically valid testing of children’s competencies. The same argument for “empirically valid” and evidence-based assessments applies to other domains of cognitive growth and to socio-emotional development. The future of preschool assessment would be well served by attention to primary research that focuses on the processes of learning. In this report, we also suggest that one possible avenue for progress in assessment would center on integrative and dynamic assessment techniques that would comprehensively capture the nature of children’s learning, minimize validity concerns related to context and culture, and evaluate how competencies in different developmental domains interact for optimal learning. To bridge the gap between science and policy, developmental scientists and test developers are urged to work together to create innovative ways to chart the developmental processes that support learning and progress toward social maturity in ways designed to ensure that research findings are continuously reflected in current assessments.

Working memory and inhibitory control in early childhood: Contributions from physiology, temperament, and language.

This study examined the cognitive skills of working memory and inhibitory control (WMIC) in relation to physiological functioning, temperament, and language in early childhood. WMIC skills were assessed in twenty-five 4 1/2-year-old children using the day--night Stroop-like task and the yes--no task; each task required the child to remember two rules and to inhibit a dominant response. Electroencephalogram (EEG) and heart period (HP) were recorded during baseline and WMIC tasks. An increase in 6- to 9-Hz EEG power from baseline to task was found for the medial frontal region. In addition, a decrease in HP (i.e., an increase in heart rate) was found from baseline to task. Associations were found between performance on the WMIC tasks and scales of the Children's Behavioral Questionnaire (CBQ) related to the effortful control of behavior. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III) distinguished between high and low WMIC performance. Results of a discriminant function analysis indicated that physiology, temperament, and language were able to correctly predict 90% of WMIC performance.