Pct TiC Research Articles

Microstructure Formation and Micropillar Compression of Al-TiC Nanocomposite Manufactured by Solidification Nanoprocessing

The microstructure and mechanical responses of a pseudo-dispersed Al-TiC nanocomposite were thoroughly studied using micropillar compression and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The microstructure of the Al-7 vol pct TiC nanocomposite comprised the α-Al matrix, DO22-Al3Ti platelet and Al4C3, along with TiC domains in which ~ 30 vol pct TiC nanoparticles were loaded without sintering contact. The pseudo-dispersion of TiC nanoparticles was rationalized by the relationship between Van der Waals attraction, Brownian motion, and energy barrier. The microscale tetragonal DO22-Al3Ti compound exhibited excellent yield strength (YS) (1400 to 1667 MPa) and microplasticity (10.8 pct). Intermittent discrete strain bursts and size effects were observed in the single-crystalline Al/Al3Ti pillars. The remarkable YS (720 MPa) of the 3 μm Al-30 vol pct TiC composite pillars was attributed to Orowan strengthening and load transfer. The crystallographic orientation relationship at the Al/TiC interface was identified to be $$ \left[ { 1 1 0} \right] (\bar{1}\bar{1}1 )_{\text{Al}} \parallel [ 1 1 0 ] (\bar{1}\bar{1}1 )_{\text{TiC}} $$, while the solid bonding guaranteed the effective load transfer and prevented the dislocation avalanche. Nano-twins and edge dislocations were observed in the HRTEM images of TiC NPs and [Al + TiC] mixture, which suggested that the major deformation mechanisms of the Al-30 vol pct TiC composite pillars were dislocation ‘pile-up’ and twins.

Effects of TiC Addition on Directionally Solidified Microstructure of Ti6Al4V

In this study, the effects of TiC particles as the heterogeneous nucleus on the microstructure of directionally solidified Ti6Al4V were investigated. Ti6Al4V powder containing 0.0, 0.3, 1.0, and 2.0 vol pct TiC particles in a Ti6Al4V sheath was melted and directionally solidified with a floating zone melting method. In this process, the temperature gradient G was approximately 12 K/mm, and the solidification rate R was 15 mm/min. The mean size of prior β grains decreased with increasing TiC addition. In samples containing TiC particles, some grains had an aspect ratio lower than 1. This indicated that TiC particles acted as the heterogeneous nucleus and generated fine and equiaxed prior β grains. Although the many TiC particles melted into molten Ti6Al4V and the excessively melted carbon from TiC particles precipitated as Ti2C, residual TiC particles acted as a heterogeneous nucleus.

Al-TiC Composites Fabricated by a Thermally Activated Reaction Process in an Al Melt Using Al-Ti-C-CuO Powder Mixtures: Part II. Microstructure Control and Mechanical Properties

Controlling the processing parameters is important to minimize such undesirable microstructural features in Al/TiC composites as unreacted C, incomplete reaction products of Al3Ti and TiC aggregates, which originate from the pellet microstructure upon the combustion reaction of an Al-Ti-C-CuO pellet in an Al melt. In particular, the mean particle size of elemental powders is a key factor linked to the formation of TiC aggregates, which is significantly suppressed with smaller initial particles of Ti and C by mixing them homogenously by ball milling. Al-Cu-Mg alloys reinforced with up to 12 vol pct TiC are fabricated by the developed process, followed by extrusion. The composites after heat treatment exhibit high elastic modulus and an ultimate tensile strength of 93 GPa and 461 MPa, respectively, with a low coefficient of thermal expansion of 17.11 ppm/K.

Deformation mechanisms in Ti-6Al-4V/TiC composites

The compressive behavior at room temperature of Ti-6Al-4V/TiC composites was examined at strain rates from 0.1 to 1000 s−1. As little as 1 vol pct TiC particulates provided greater than a 20 pct increase in strength over that of the monolithic Ti-6Al-4V, while further additions of TiC did not provide proportional benefits. Microstructural examination before and after compression testing was instrumental in understanding the relative importance of the primary strengthening mechanism in the composites as compared to the monolithic material. A comparison of the various possible mechanisms clearly showed that the dominant mechanism was due to carbon in solid solution. At low strain rates, the failure process consisted of a progression of damage in the matrix and at particle-matrix boundaries, while at high strain rates, failure occurred along adiabatic shear bands. The composites had a greater susceptibility to adiabatic shear-band formation than did the monolithic material.

Strength and plastic flow in “in situ” TiC reinforced aluminum composites

The deformation behavior of TiC particulate-reinforced aluminum composites (Al-TiCp) was investigated in this work using pure aluminum as the reference matrix material. Uniaxial compression tests were carried out at 293 and 623 K and at two strain rates (3.7×10−4 and 3.7×10−3 s−1). Yield strengths of up to 127 MPa were found in composites containing 10 vol pct TiC particulates, which were almost 4 times the yield strength of pure Al. In addition, at 623 K, relatively small reductions in yield strength were found, suggesting that this property was rather insensitive to temperature for the temperatures investigated in this work. Nevertheless, at 623 K, increasing the rate of straining from 3.7×10−4 s−1 to 3.7×10−3 s−1 lowered the yield strength, particularly in 10 vol pct TiCp-Al composites. Two stages of work hardening were identified in pure Al and a 10 vol pct TiCp composite during plastic flow through the modified version of the Hollomon equation (σ = Kɛn ± Δ). In particular, the work-hardening exponents found in pure Al shifted from high to low values as the extent of plastic strain was increased while the opposite was true for the 10 vol pct TiCp composite. Finally, at 623 K, dynamic recovery mechanisms became dominant at plastic strain levels >0.2 in 10 vol pct TiCp-Al composites, with the effect being minor at room temperature.

Kinetics of biaxial dome formation by transformation superplasticity of titanium alloys and composites

By thermally cycling through their transformation temperature range, coarse-grained polymorphic materials can be deformed superplastically, owing to the emergence of transformation mismatch plasticity (or transformation superplasticity) as a deformation mechanism. This mechanism is presently investigated under biaxial stress conditions during thermal cycling of unalloyed titanium, Ti-6Al-4V, and their composites (Ti/10 vol. pct TiC p , Ti-6Al-4V/10 vol. pct TiC p , and Ti-6Al-4V/5 vol. pct TiB w ). During gas-pressure dome bulging experiments, the dome height was measured as a function of forming time. Adapting existing models of biaxial doming to the case of transformation superplasticity where the strain-rate sensitivity is unity, we verify the operation of this deformation mechanism in all experimental materials and compare the biaxial results directly to new uniaxial thermal cycling results on the same materials. Finally, existing thickness distribution models are compared with experimentally measured profiles.

High-temperature mechanical behavior of Ti-6Al-4V alloy and TiC p /Ti-6Al-4V composite

Mechanical behaviors at 538 °C, including tensile and creep properties, were investigated for both the Ti-6Al-4V alloy and the Ti-6Al-4V composite reinforced with 10 wt pct TiC particulates fabricated by cold and hot isostatic pressing (CHIP). It was shown that the yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the composite were greater than those of the matrix alloy at the strain rates ranging from approximately 10−5 to 10−3 s−1. However, the elongation of the composite material was substantially lower than that of the matrix alloy. The creep resistance of the composite was superior to that of the matrix alloy. The data of minimum creep strain rate vs applied stress for the composite can be fit to a power-law equation, and the stress exponent values of 5 and 8 were obtained for applied stress ranges of 103 to 232 MPa and 232 to 379 MPa, respectively. The damage mechanisms were different for the matrix alloy and the composite, as demonstrated by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation of fracture surfaces and the optical microscopy examination of the regions adjacent to the fracture surface. The tensile-tested matrix alloy showed dimpled fracture, while the creep-tested matrix alloy exhibited preferentially interlath and intercolony cracking. The failure of the tensile-tested and creep-tested composite material was controlled by the cleavage failure of the particulates, which was followed by the ductile fracture of the matrix.

Elevated-temperature oxidation behavior of titanium silicide and titanium silicide-based alloy and composite

The oxidation behavior of Ti5Si3 has been studied in air in the temperature range of 1200 °C to 1400 °C. The oxidation kinetics is slower than that predicted by the parabolic-rate law equation at 1200 °C, but is sharply enhanced beyond a temperature of 1300 °C. The oxidation kinetics of a Ti5Si3-8 wt pct Al alloy and a Ti5Si3-20 vol pct TiC composite at 1200 °C has also been investigated and compared to that of Ti5Si3. Alloying with Al does not alter the oxidation resistance much, but the presence of TiC reinforcements enhances the rate of oxidation significantly. The oxidation products have been identified and the mechanism of oxidation has been analyzed using thermodynamic and kinetic considerations.

Grain refining of Al-4.5Cu alloy by adding an Al-30TiC master alloy

A particulate Al-30 wt pct TiC composite was employed as a grain refiner for the Al-4.5 wt pct Cu alloy. The composite contains submicron TiC particles. The addition of the TiC grain refiner to the metal alloy in the amount of 0.1 Ti wt pct effected a remarkable reduction in the average grain size in Al-4.5 wt pct Cu alloy castings. With the content of over 0.2 Ti wt pct, the grain refiner maintained its refining effectiveness even after a 3600-second holding time at 973 K. The TiC particles in the resulting castings were free of interfacial phases. It is concluded that the TiC are the nucleating agents and that they are resistant to the “fading effect” encountered with most grain refiners.

Transformation superplasticity of iron and Fe/TiC metal matrix composites

Unreinforced iron was thermally cycled around the α/γ phase field under an externally applied uniaxial tensile stress, resulting in strain increments which could be accumulated, upon repeated cycling, to a total strain of 450 pct without failure. In agreement with existing theory attributing transformation superplasticity to the biasing of the internal allotropic strains by the external stress, the measured strain increments were proportional to the applied stress at small stresses. However, for applied stresses higher than the nominal yield stress, strain increments increased nonlinearly with stress, as a result of strain hardening due to dissolved carbon and iron oxide dispersoids. Also, the effects of transient primary creep and ratchetting on the superplastic strain increment values were examined. Finally, partial cycling within the α/γ phase field indicated an asymmetry in the superplastic strain behavior with respect to the temperature cycling range, which is attributed to the different strengths of ferrite and austenite. Transformation superplasticity was demonstrated in iron-matrix composites containing 10 and 20 vol pct TiC particles: strain increments proportional to the applied stress were measured, and a fracture strain of 230 pct was reached for the Fe/10TiC composite. However, the strain increments decreased with increasing TiC content, a result attributed to the slight dissolution of TiC particles within the matrix which raised the matrix yield stress by solid-solution strengthening and by reducing the transformation temperature range.

Microstructure and mechanical behavior of the NiAl-TiC In situ composite

The microstructure, interfaces, and mechanical properties of NiAl-matrix composites reinforced by 0 and 20 vol pct TiC particles have been examined. The composites were prepared by the hot-press-aided exothermic synthesis (HPES) technique. Portions of the HPES-processed samples were hot isostatically pressed (''hipped'') at 1165 degrees C/150 MPa for 4 hours or annealed at 1400 degrees C for 48 hours. In the as-fabricated state, TiC particles were generally polygonal and faceted, and the interfaces' between TiC and NiAl were atomically flat, sharp, and generally free from any interfacial phase. At least two orientation relationships between TiC and NiAl were observed. In some cases, thin amorphous layers existed at NiAl/TiC interfaces. After ''hipping,'' the TiC particles tended to become round and the TiC/NiAl interfaces became overlapped. Annealing at 1400 degrees C for 48 hours did not affect the microstructure or the interfacial structure of the composite in most cases. The compressive yield strengths (YSs) from room temperature to 1100 degrees C of the composite were considerably higher than that of the monolithic NiAl. At 980 degrees C, the tensile YS of the composite was approximately 3 times that of the monolithic NiAl. In addition, the ambient fracture toughness of the composite was 50 pct higher than that of the monolithic NiAl.

Influence of matrix structure on the abrasion wear resistance and toughness of a hot isostatic pressed white iron matrix composite

The influence of the matrix structure on the mechanical properties of a hot isostatic pressed (hipped) white iron matrix composite containing 10 vol pct TiC is investigated. The matrix structure was systematically varied by heat treating at different austenitizing temperatures. Various subsequent treatments were also employed. It was found that an austenitizing treatment at higher temperatures increases the hardness, wear resistance, and impact toughness of the composite. Although after every different heat treatment procedure the matrix structure of the composite was predominantly martensitic, with very low contents of retained austenite, some other microstructural features affected the mechanical properties to a great extent. Abrasion resistance and hardness increased with the austenitizing temperature because of the higher carbon content in martensite in the structure of the composite. Optimum impact energy values were obtained with structures containing a low amount of M (M7C3+M23C6) carbides in combination with a decreased carbon content martensite. Structure austenitized at higher temperatures showed the best tempering response. A refrigerating treatment was proven beneficial after austenitizing the composite at the lower temperature. The greatest portion in the increased martensitic transformation in comparison to the unreinforced alloy, which was observed particularly after austenitizing the composite at higher temperatures,[1] was confirmed to be mechanically induced. The tempering cycle might have caused some additional chemically induced transformation. The newly examined iron-based composite was found to have higher wear resistance than the most abrasion-resistant ferroalloy material (white cast iron).

NiTi and NiTi-TiC composites: Part IV. Neutron diffraction study of twinning and shape-memory recovery

Neutron diffraction measurements of internal elastic strains and crystallographic orientation were performed during compressive deformation of martensitic NiTi containing 0 vol pct and 20 vol pct TiC particles. For bulk NiTi, some twinning takes place upon initial loading below the apparent yield stress, resulting in a low apparent Young's modulus; for reinforced NiTi, the elastic mismatch from the stiff particles enhances this effect. However, elastic load transfer between matrix and reinforcement takes place above and below the composite apparent yield stress, in good agreement with continuum mechanics predictions. Macroscopic plastic deformation occurs by matrix twinning, whereby (1 0 0) planes tend to align perpendicular to the stress axis. The elastic TiC particles do not alter the overall twinning behavior, indicating that the mismatch stresses associated with NiTi plastic deformation are fully relaxed by localized twinning at the interface between the matrix and the reinforcement. For both bulk and reinforced NiTi, partial reverse twinning takes place upon unloading, as indicated by a Bauschinger effect followed by rubberlike behavior, resulting in very low residual stresses in the unloaded condition. Shape-memory heat treatment leads to further recovery of the preferred orientation and very low residual stresses, as a result of self-accommodation during the phase transformations. It is concluded that, except for elastic load transfer, the thermal, transformation, and plastic mismatches resulting from the TiC particles are efficiently canceled by matrix twinning, in contrast to metal matrix composites deforming by slip.

Niti and NiTi-TiC composites: Part III. shape-memory recovery

The transformation behavior of near-equiatomic NiTi containing 0, 10, and 20 vol pct TiC particulates is investigated by dilatometry. Undeformed composites exhibit a macroscopic transformation strain larger than predicted when assuming that the elastic transformation mismatch between the matrix and the particulates is unrelaxed, indicating that the mismatch is partially accommodated by matrix twinning during transformation. The thermal recovery behavior of unreinforced NiTi which was deformed primarily by twinning in the martensite phase shows that plastic deformation by slip increases with increasing prestrain, leading to (1) a decrease of the shape-memory strain on heating, (2) an increase of the two-way shape-memory strain on cooling, (3) a widening of the temperature interval over which the strain recovery occurs on heating, and (4) an increase of the transformation temperature hysteresis. For NiTi composites, the recovery behavior indicates that most of the mis-match during mechanical deformation between the TiC particulates and the NiTi matrix is relaxed by matrix twinning. However, some relaxation takes place by matrix slip, resulting in the following trends with increasing TiC content at constant prestrain: (1) decrease of the shape-memory strain on heating, (2) enhancement of the two-way shape-memory strain on cooling, and (3) broadening of the transformation interval on heating.

Niti and NiTi-TiC composites: Part II. compressive mechanical properties

The deformation behavior under uniaxial compression of NiTi containing 0, 10, and 20 vol pct TiC participates is investigated both below and above the matrix martensitic transformation temperature: (1) at room temperature, where the martensitic matrix deforms plastically by slip and/or twinning; and (2) at elevated temperature, where plastic deformation of the austenitic matrix takes place by slip and/or formation of stress-induced martensite. The effect of TiC particles on the stress-strain curves of the composites depends upon which of these deformation mechanisms is dominant. First, in the low-strain elastic region, the mismatch between the stiff, elastic particles and the elastic-plastic matrix is relaxed in the composites: (1) by twinning of the martensitic matrix, resulting in a macroscopic twinning yield stress and apparent elastic modulus lower than those predicted by the Eshelby elastic load-transfer theory; and (2) by dislocation slip of the austenitic matrix, thus increasing the transformation yield stress, as compared to a simple load-transfer prediction, because the austenite phase is stabilized by dislocations. Second, in the moderate-strain plastic region where nonslip deformation mechanisms are dominant, mismatch dislocations stabilize the matrix for all samples, thus (1) reducing the extent of twinning in the martensitic samples or (2) reducing the formation of stressinduced martensite in the austenitic samples. This leads to a strengthening of the composites, similar to the strain-hardening effect observed in metal matrix composites deforming solely by slip. Third, in the high-strain region controlled by dislocation slip, weakening of the NiTi composites results, because the matrix contains (1) untwinned martensite or (2) retained austenite, which exhibit lower slip yield stress than twinned or stress-induced martensite, respectively.

The effect of particle reinforcement on the creep behavior of single-phase aluminum

The effect of TiC particle reinforcement on the creep behavior of Al (99.8) and Al-1.5Mg is investigated in the temperature range of 150 °C to 250 °C. The dislocation structure developed during creep is characterized in these materials. The addition of TiC increases creep resistance in both alloys. In pure aluminum, the presence of 15 vol pct TiC leads to a factor of 400 to 40,000 increase in creep resistance. The creep strengthening observed in Al/TiC/15p is substantially greater than the direct strengthening predicted by continuum models. Traditional methods for explaining creep strengthening in particle-reinforced materials(e.g., threshold stress, constant structure, and dislocation density) are unable to account for the increase in creep resistance. The creep hardening rate(h) is found to be 100 times higher in Al/TiC/15p, than in unreinforced Al. When incorporated into a recovery creep model, this increase inh can explain the reduction in creep rate in Al/TiC/15p. Particle reinforcement affects creep hardening, and thus creep rate, by altering the equilibrium dislocation substructure that forms during steady-state creep. The nonequilibrium structure generates internal stresses which lower the rate of dislocation glide. The strengthening observed by adding TiC to Al-1.5Mg is much smaller than that found in the pure aluminum materials and is consistent with the amount of strengthening predicted by continuum models. These results show that while both direct (continuum) and indirect strengthening occur in particle-reinforced aluminum alloys, the ratio of indirect to direct strengthening is strongly influenced by the operative matrix strengthening mechanisms.

Strengthening of Al/20 v/o TiC composites by isothermal heat treatment

A chemical potential gradient exists across the reinforcement/matrix interface of metal-matrix composites which serves as the basis for either diffusion or chemical reaction between the two components at high temperatures. While poor control of this reaction may degrade mechanical properties, it may also be employed to improve them. Such improvements as an increase in elastic modulus in the case of Al-Mg/SiC(p) are attributable to improved load transfer, due either to an interactive diffusion process at the interface or the 'keying' effect of interfacial Al4C3. A systematic study is presently undertaken of the effects of 600 C exposure on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al/20 vol pct TiC; a reduction in tensile ductility is associated with an increase in strength and elastic modulus. 5 refs.

In situ formation of three-dimensional TiC reinforcements in Ti-TiC composites

Three-dimensional, single-crystal reinforcements of TiC were producedin situ during manufacture of Ti-TiC composites. The composites, containing 40 to 50 vol pct TiC, were produced using standard casting procedures. The presence of aluminum in Ti-TiC composites showed enhanced strength without loss of ductility at room and elevated temperatures. Aluminum additions were found to solid solution strengthen the Ti matrix and increase the strength of the TiC phase. The morphology of the TiC, which was controlled by processing parameters, influenced the properties of the Ti-TiC composites investigated. Refinement of the secondary dendrite arm spacing of the three-dimensional (3-D) TiC particles was found to dramatically improve the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and ductility of the Ti-TiC composites.

An analytical electron microscopy study of the high temperature carbide formed in a V-5 Ti-C alloy

A finely dispersed high temperature carbide that precipitates at 1000°C in a V-5 pct Ti-C alloy has been studied using analytical electron microscopy. The crystal structure has been determined using electron diffraction as B1 (NaCl-type) with a lattice parameter of 4.29A. The carbide develops a habit plane parallel to {001} of the matrix. The orientation relationship between the carbide and the matrix is [010] carbide ¦ | [ $$ \begin{gathered} [010] carbide || [0\bar 10] matrix \hfill \\ (001) carbide ||(101) matrix. \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$ The elemental concentrations of the metal constituents of the carbide have been deduced using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and electron energy loss spectroscopy, through examination of core electron excitations. The composition of the carbide is found to be V11Ti3gC50, assuming a stoichiometric carbide.

Microconstituents in Chromium-Base Chromium-Iron-Molybdenum Alloys and Their Behavior with Heat Treatment

The phases in Cr-Fe-Mo alloys have been investigated with homogenization, aging temperature, composition range, and alloy addition as variables. Metallography, three X-ray methods, and hardness were used as methods of study. The behavior of σ, M23C6, and Z phase are reported for composition range 60 pct Cr-15 to 25 pct Fe-15 to 25 pct Mo-<0.005 to 0.36 pct C with aging at 1400° to 2000°F. With 2 pct Ti, TiC and TiC-TiN are formed; with nitrogen Cr2N.