Expression Of PCSK1 Research Articles

Vitamin D3 Regulates Energy Homeostasis under Short-Term Fasting Condition in Zebrafish (Danio Rerio).

Vitamin D3 (VD3) is a steroid hormone that plays pivotal roles in pathophysiology, and 1,25(OH)2D3 is the most active form of VD3. In the current study, the crucial role of VD3 in maintaining energy homeostasis under short-term fasting conditions was investigated. Our results confirmed that glucose-depriving pathways were inhibited while glucose-producing pathways were strengthened in zebrafish after fasting for 24 or 48 h. Moreover, VD3 anabolism in zebrafish was significantly suppressed in a time-dependent manner under short-fasting conditions. After fasting for 24 or 48 h, zebrafish fed with VD3 displayed a higher gluconeogenesis level and lower glycolysis level in the liver, and the serum glucose was maintained at higher levels, compared to those fed without VD3. Additionally, VD3 augmented the expression of fatty acids (FAs) transporter cd36 and lipogenesis in the liver, while enhancing lipolysis in the dorsal muscle. Similar results were obtained in cyp2r1-/- zebrafish, in which VD3 metabolism is obstructed. Importantly, it was observed that VD3 induced the production of gut GLP-1, which is considered to possess a potent gluconeogenic function in zebrafish. Meanwhile, the gene expression of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 (pcsk1), a GLP-1 processing enzyme, was also induced in the intestine of short-term fasted zebrafish. Notably, gut microbiota and its metabolite acetate were involved in VD3-regulated pcsk1 expression and GLP-1 production under short-term fasting conditions. In summary, our study demonstrated that VD3 regulated GLP-1 production in zebrafish by influencing gut microbiota and its metabolite, contributing to energy homeostasis and ameliorating hypoglycemia under short-term fasting conditions.

366-OR: 14-3-3-ζ Contributes to Effect of ß-Cell GLP1 Receptor Signaling to Alter a-Cell Proglucagon Processing

Glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP1) , a classically gut derived hormone, potentiates insulin secretion. New evidence suggests that α cells can produce GLP1 under certain conditions, which may offer a novel therapeutic modality for treating diabetes; however, the mechanisms regulating α cell GLP1 production are unknown. We previously found that enhanced β cell GLP1 receptor (GLP1R) signaling activates α cell GLP1 by activating prohormone convertase 1/3 (Pcsk1) expression. We tested the hypothesis that enhanced β cell GLP1R signaling activates α cell GLP1 production through paracrine factors. We studied the impact of conditioned media (CM) generated from β cell GLP1R WT and KO islets of saline (CTRL) and liraglutide (LIRA) treated mice on α cell gene expression and function. CM from LIRA treated islets increased α cell Pcsk1 expression and active GLP-1 secretion only if β cells expressed the GLP1R (Pcsk1 expression (AU) : CTRL WT=1.0±0.1, LIRA WT=2.0±0.3, CTRL KO=1.1±0.2, LIRA KO=1.1±0.2, P<0.01; active GLP-1 (pg/mL) : CTRL WT=124±44, LIRA WT=682±247, CTRL KO=173±101, LIRA KO=116±30, P<0.05) . Subsequent identification of the proteome secreted by mouse and human islets in response to LIRA and CTRL revealed 14-3-3-ζ as a lead candidate in the regulation of α cell Pcsk1 expression. To assess the role of 14-3-3-ζ, islets from LIRA treated mice were treated with and without 14-3-3-ζ, and islets from CTRL treated mice were treated with and without the 14-3-3 inhibitor, R18. Addition of 14-3-3-ζ ablated the effect of CM from LIRA treated islets to increase α cell Pcsk1 expression, while inhibition of 14-3-3 with R18 in CTRL islets resulted in CM that mimicked the effect of CM from LIRA treated islets to stimulate α cell Pcsk1 expression (Pcsk1 expression: CTRL=1.1±0.2, R18=2.0±0.2, LIRA=2.4±0.3, LIRA+14-3-3-ζ=1.3±0.1, P<0.05) . These data refine our understanding of α cell GLP1 regulation and identify 14-3-3-ζ as a potential target with which to enhance α cell GLP1 production for diabetes treatment. Disclosure M.Holter: None. B.Cummings: None. D.Phuong: None. I.S.H.Lee: None. M.Saikia: None. L.A.Weikert: Stock/Shareholder; Merck & Co., Inc., Oramed Pharmaceuticals. E.T.Anderson: None. Q.Fu: None. S.Zhang: None. K.Sloop: Employee; Eli Lilly and Company. Funding NIH/NIDDK (F30 DK126538) Department of Defense (W81XWH-18-1-0206) The Hartwell Foundation NIH/NIDDK (R56DK124853)

139-OR: Large-Scale Sex-Stratified Additive and Recessive GWAS Identifies Novel Large-Effect Variants and Improves Polygenic Prediction for Type 2 Diabetes

Introduction: Most genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of type 2 diabetes (T2D) assume an additive mode of inheritance and equal effects in men and women. These assumptions can preclude the discovery of variants with effects that are non-additive and/or sex-specific. Focused exploration of these effects may reveal novel genetic variation associated with T2D and improve the predictive performance of polygenic risk scores (PRS) . Methods: We performed a sex-stratified GWAS, using additive and recessive models for T2D, in individuals of European ancestry in the UK Biobank (UKBB) and Genetic Epidemiology Research on Aging cohort. We also generated sex-specific and non-sex-specific T2D PRSs, using PRS-CS, and assessed their performance in Mass General Brigham Biobank (MGBB) . Results: As the largest sex-stratified additive and recessive GWAS of T2D performed to date, this study included 30,625 cases and 223,442 controls. In the recessive analysis, we identified 7 novel variants, of which 1 was female-specific and 1 was male-specific. Among these variants, 4 were associated with over 10-fold increase in risk for T2D. The male-specific variant, rs35725476 (OR = 1.49, p = 3×10- 9) , is associated with higher expression of a long non-coding RNA in pancreatic islets (p = 3×10- 14) . In the additive analysis, we identified a novel female-specific protective variant, rs12109272 (OR = 0.91, p = 3×10-8) , which is associated with lower PCSK1 expression, lower risk of gestational diabetes (p = 1×10- 6) and lower fasting glucose (p = 6×10- 32) in independent cohorts. Finally, the sex-specific PRS outperformed the non-sex-specific PRS at predicting T2D in MGBB (AUC of 0.653 versus 0.643, p [of difference] = 2×10-4 in males; AUC of 0.674 versus 0.656, p [of difference] = 3×10-4 in females) . Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the value of non-additive and sex-stratified analyses for both variant discovery and improving polygenic prediction for T2D. Disclosure P.H.Schroeder: None. J.B.Cole: None. A.Leong: None. J.C.Florez: Consultant; AstraZeneca, Goldfinch Bio, Inc., Other Relationship; AstraZeneca, Merck & Co., Inc., Novo Nordisk. J.M.Mercader: None. Funding American Diabetes Association (1-19-ICTS-068) ; National Human Genome Research Institute (U01HG011723)

Dapagliflozin promotes beta cell regeneration by inducing pancreatic endocrine cell phenotype conversion in type 2 diabetic mice

BackgroundClinical trials and animal studies have shown that sodium-glucose co-transporter type 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors improve pancreatic beta cell function. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of dapagliflozin on islet morphology and cell phenotype, and explore the origin and possible reason of the regenerated beta cells. MethodsTwo diabetic mouse models, db/db mice and pancreatic alpha cell lineage-tracing (glucagon-β-gal) mice whose diabetes was induced by high fat diet combined with streptozotocin, were used. Mice were treated by daily intragastric administration of dapagliflozin (1 mg/kg) or vehicle for 6 weeks. The plasma insulin, glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) were determined by using ELISA. The evaluation of islet morphology and cell phenotype was performed with immunofluorescence. Primary rodent islets and αTC1.9, a mouse alpha cell line, were incubated with dapagliflozin (0.25–25 μmol/L) or vehicle in the presence or absence of GLP-1 receptor antagonist for 24 h in regular or high glucose medium. The expression of specific markers and hormone levels were determined. ResultsTreatment with dapagliflozin significantly decreased blood glucose in the two diabetic models and upregulated plasma insulin and GLP-1 levels in db/db mice. The dapagliflozin treatment increased islet and beta cell numbers in the two diabetic mice. The beta cell proliferation as indicated by C-peptide and BrdU double-positive cells was boosted by dapagliflozin. The alpha to beta cell conversion, as evaluated by glucagon and insulin double-positive cells and confirmed by using alpha cell lineage-tracing, was facilitated by dapagliflozin. After the dapagliflozin treatment, some insulin-positive cells were located in the duct compartment or even co-localized with duct cell markers, suggestive of duct-derived beta cell neogenesis. In cultured primary rodent islets and αTC1.9 cells, dapagliflozin upregulated the expression of pancreatic endocrine progenitor and beta cell specific markers (including Pdx1) under high glucose condition. Moreover, dapagliflozin upregulated the expression of Pcsk1 (which encodes prohormone convertase 1/3, an important enzyme for processing proglucagon to GLP-1), and increased GLP-1 content and secretion in αTC1.9 cells. Importantly, the dapagliflozin-induced upregulation of Pdx1 expression was attenuated by GLP-1 receptor antagonist. ConclusionsExcept for glucose-lowering effect, dapagliflozin has extra protective effects on beta cells in type 2 diabetes. Dapagliflozin enhances beta cell self-replication, induces alpha to beta cell conversion, and promotes duct-derived beta cell neogenesis. The promoting effects of dapagliflozin on beta cell regeneration may be partially mediated via GLP-1 secreted from alpha cells.

Transcription factor Creb3l1 regulates the synthesis of prohormone convertase enzyme PC1/3 in endocrine cells.

Transcription factor cAMP responsive element‐binding protein 3 like 1 (Creb3l1) is a non‐classical endoplasmic reticulum stress molecule that is emerging as an important component for cellular homeostasis, particularly within cell types with high peptide secretory capabilities. We have previously shown that Creb3l1 serves an important role in body fluid homeostasis through its transcriptional control of the gene coding for antidiuretic hormone arginine vasopressin in the neuropeptide‐rich magnocellular neurones of the supraoptic nucleus. In response to osmotic stimuli such as dehydration, vasopressin magnocellular neurones undergo remarkable transcriptome changes, including increased Creb3l1 expression, to ensure that the supply of vasopressin meets demand. To determine where else Creb3l1 fits into the secretory cell supply chain, we performed RNA‐sequencing of Creb3l1 knockdown anterior pituitary mouse corticotroph cell line AtT20. The target chosen for further investigation was Pcsk1, which encodes proprotein convertase enzyme 1 (PC1/3). PC1/3 is crucial for processing of neuropeptides and peptide hormones such as pro‐opiomelanocortin (POMC), proinsulin, proglucagon, vasopressin and oxytocin. Viral manipulations in supraoptic nuclei by over‐expression of Creb3l1 increased Pcsk1, whereas Creb3l1 knockdown decreased Pcsk1 expression. In vitro promoter activity and binding studies showed that Creb3l1 was a transcription factor of the Pcsk1 gene binding directly to a G‐box motif in the promoter. In the dehydrated rat anterior pituitary, Creb3l1 and Pcsk1 expression decreased in parallel compared to control, supporting our findings from manipulations in AtT20 cells and the supraoptic nucleus. No relationship was observed between Creb3l1 and Pcsk1 expression in the neurointermediate lobe of the pituitary, indicating a different mechanism of PC1/3 synthesis by these POMC‐synthesising cells. Therefore, Creb3l1, by regulating the expression of Pcsk1, does not control the processing of POMC peptides in the intermediate lobe.

PCSK1 Overexpression in Rectal Cancer Correlates with Poor Response to Preoperative Chemoradiotherapy and Prognosis.

BackgroundIn a data mining search for potential therapeutic targets to improve the outcome of rectal cancer, we identified PCSK1 as the cell–cell signaling gene most significantly associated with poor response to concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CCRT). This study aims to investigate the prognostic value of PCSK1 expression in rectal cancer patients who underwent neoadjuvant CCRT.MethodsEndoscopic biopsy specimens from 172 rectal cancer patients receiving neoadjuvant CCRT followed by curative surgery were assessed immunohistochemically for PCSK1 expression, and H-scores were determined. Expression levels of PCSK1 were further analyzed for correlations with clinicopathologic features, tumor regression grade, metastasis-free survival, disease-specific survival, and recurrence-free survival.ResultsPCKS1 overexpression was significantly associated with pretreatment tumor status (T3–4; p = 0.009), pretreatment nodal status (N1–2; p < 0.001), posttreatment tumor status (T3–4; p < 0.001), posttreatment nodal status (N1–2; p < 0.001), vascular invasion (p = 0.003), and perineurial invasion (p = 0.023). PCKS1 overexpression was also found to be significantly associated with a lower degree of tumor regression (p < 0.001). In the univariate analysis, PCSK1 overexpression was significantly associated with lower disease-specific survival, metastasis-free survival, and recurrence-free survival (p < 0.005). PCSK1 overexpression remained an independent prognostic factor of lower disease-specific survival (p = 0.003; hazard ratio, 5.478) in the multivariate analysis.ConclusionDetermination of PCSK1 overexpression may be useful for identifying rectal cancer patients at risk for a poor response and worse survival after CCRT.

IL-6-Type Cytokine Signaling in Adipocytes Induces Intestinal GLP-1 Secretion.

We recently showed that interleukin (IL)-6-type cytokine signaling in adipocytes induces free fatty acid release from visceral adipocytes, thereby promoting obesity-induced hepatic insulin resistance and steatosis. In addition, IL-6-type cytokines may increase the release of leptin from adipocytes and by those means induce glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) secretion. We thus hypothesized that IL-6-type cytokine signaling in adipocytes may regulate insulin secretion. To this end, mice with adipocyte-specific knockout of gp130, the signal transducer protein of IL-6, were fed a high-fat diet for 12 weeks. Compared with control littermates, knockout mice showed impaired glucose tolerance and circulating leptin, GLP-1, and insulin levels were reduced. In line, leptin release from isolated adipocytes was reduced, and intestinal proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 (Pcsk1) expression, the gene encoding PC1/3, which controls GLP-1 production, was decreased in knockout mice. Importantly, treatment with the GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin 9-39 abolished the observed difference in glucose tolerance between control and knockout mice. Ex vivo, supernatant collected from isolated adipocytes of gp130 knockout mice blunted Pcsk1 expression and GLP-1 release from GLUTag cells. In contrast, glucose- and GLP-1-stimulated insulin secretion was not affected in islets of knockout mice. In conclusion, adipocyte-specific IL-6 signaling induces intestinal GLP-1 release to enhance insulin secretion, thereby counteracting insulin resistance in obesity.

Persistence of Pancreatic Insulin mRNA Expression and Proinsulin Protein in Type 1 Diabetes Pancreata

The canonical notion that type 1 diabetes (T1D) results following a complete destruction of β cells has recently been questioned as small amounts of C-peptide are detectable in patients with long-standing disease. We analyzed protein and gene expression levels for proinsulin, insulin, C-peptide, and islet amyloid polypeptide within pancreatic tissues from T1D, autoantibody positive (Ab+), and control organs. Insulin and C-peptide levels were low to undetectable in extracts from the T1D cohort; however, proinsulin and INS mRNA were detected in the majority of T1Dpancreata. Interestingly, heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) for insulin and INS-IGF2, both originating from the INS promoter, were essentially undetectable in T1D pancreata, arguing for a silent INSpromoter. Expression of PCSK1, a convertase responsible for proinsulin processing, was reduced in T1D pancreata, supportive of persistent proinsulin. These data implicate the existence of β cells enriched for inefficient insulin/C-peptide production in T1D patients, potentially less susceptible to autoimmune destruction.

Deficiency in prohormone convertase PC1 impairs prohormone processing in Prader-Willi syndrome.

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is caused by a loss of paternally expressed genes in an imprinted region of chromosome 15q. Among the canonical PWS phenotypes are hyperphagic obesity, central hypogonadism, and low growth hormone (GH). Rare microdeletions in PWS patients define a 91-kb minimum critical deletion region encompassing 3 genes, including the noncoding RNA gene SNORD116. Here, we found that protein and transcript levels of nescient helix loop helix 2 (NHLH2) and the prohormone convertase PC1 (encoded by PCSK1) were reduced in PWS patient induced pluripotent stem cell-derived (iPSC-derived) neurons. Moreover, Nhlh2 and Pcsk1 expression were reduced in hypothalami of fasted Snord116 paternal knockout (Snord116p-/m+) mice. Hypothalamic Agrp and Npy remained elevated following refeeding in association with relative hyperphagia in Snord116p-/m+ mice. Nhlh2-deficient mice display growth deficiencies as adolescents and hypogonadism, hyperphagia, and obesity as adults. Nhlh2 has also been shown to promote Pcsk1 expression. Humans and mice deficient in PC1 display hyperphagic obesity, hypogonadism, decreased GH, and hypoinsulinemic diabetes due to impaired prohormone processing. Here, we found that Snord116p-/m+ mice displayed in vivo functional defects in prohormone processing of proinsulin, pro-GH-releasing hormone, and proghrelin in association with reductions in islet, hypothalamic, and stomach PC1 content. Our findings suggest that the major neuroendocrine features of PWS are due to PC1 deficiency.

Bisphenol A effects on gene expression in adipocytes from children: association with metabolic disorders.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a xenobiotic endocrine-disrupting chemical. In vitro and in vivo studies have indicated that BPA alters endocrine-metabolic pathways in adipose tissue, which increases the risk of metabolic disorders and obesity. BPA can affect adipose tissue and increase fat cell numbers or sizes by regulating the expression of the genes that are directly involved in metabolic homeostasis and obesity. Several studies performed in animal models have accounted for an obesogen role of BPA, but its effects on human adipocytes - especially in children - have been poorly investigated. The aim of this study is to understand the molecular mechanisms by which environmentally relevant doses of BPA can interfere with the canonical endocrine function that regulates metabolism in mature human adipocytes from prepubertal, non-obese children. BPA can act as an estrogen agonist or antagonist depending on the physiological context. To identify the molecular signatures associated with metabolism, transcriptional modifications of mature adipocytes from prepubertal children exposed to estrogen were evaluated by means of microarray analysis. The analysis of deregulated genes associated with metabolic disorders allowed us to identify a small group of genes that are expressed in an opposite manner from that of adipocytes treated with BPA. In particular, we found that BPA increases the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the expression of FABP4 and CD36, two genes involved in lipid metabolism. In addition, BPA decreases the expression of PCSK1, a gene involved in insulin production. These results indicate that exposure to BPA may be an important risk factor for developing metabolic disorders that are involved in childhood metabolism dysregulation.

A common variant upstream of the PAX6 gene influences islet function in man

Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired insulin secretion have been reported in families with PAX6 mutations and it is suggested that they result from defective proinsulin processing due to lack of prohormone convertase 1/3, encoded by PCSK1. We investigated whether a common PAX6 variant would mimic these findings and explored in detail its effect on islet function in man. A PAX6 candidate single nucleotide polymorphism (rs685428) was associated with fasting insulin levels in the Diabetes Genetics Initiative genome-wide association study. We explored its potential association with glucose tolerance and insulin processing and secretion in three Scandinavian cohorts (N = 8,897 individuals). In addition, insulin secretion and the expression of PAX6 and transcriptional target genes were studied in human pancreatic islets. rs685428 G allele carriers had lower islet mRNA expression of PAX6 (p = 0.01) and PCSK1 (p = 0.001) than AA homozygotes. The G allele was associated with increased fasting insulin (p (replication) = 0.02, p (all) = 0.0008) and HOMA-insulin resistance (p (replication) = 0.02, p (all) = 0.001) as well as a lower fasting proinsulin/insulin ratio (p (all) = 0.008) and lower fasting glucagon (p = 0.04) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) (p = 0.05) concentrations. Arginine-stimulated (p = 0.02) insulin secretion was reduced in vivo, which was further reflected by a reduction of glucose- and potassium-stimulated insulin secretion (p = 0.002 and p = 0.04, respectively) in human islets in vitro. A common variant in PAX6 is associated with reduced PAX6 and PCSK1 expression in human islets and reduced insulin response, as well as decreased glucagon and GIP concentrations and decreased insulin sensitivity. These findings emphasise the central role of PAX6 in the regulation of islet function and glucose metabolism in man.

Abstract 1621: The proprotein convertase PCSK1 is a novel drug target in alveolar soft part sarcoma (ASPS)

Abstract Proprotein convertases (PCs) are a family of calcium-dependent serine endoproteases which mediate the proteolytic cleavage, at pairs of dibasic amino acids, of many precursor proteins, including growth factors and pro-hormones, into their functionally active forms. One family member, PCSK1, was identified as a potential therapeutic target in ASPS. This was based on gene expression profiling of 4 primary and 3 metastatic ASPS tumors (BMC Cancer 9:22, 2009). Affymetrix 133 Plus 2 arrays revealed that PCSK1, but not PCSK2 or furin, was significantly up-regulated (range 18.6 to 131 fold) relative to universal RNA, a multi-organ pool of non-tumor RNA's. PCSK1 expression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and Western Blot analysis in patient tumors, in an ASPS xenograft model, and in a cell line developed from the xenograft tumor (ASPS-1; J Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol., in press 2010) as well as in tumors produced by ASPS-1 in immunocompromised mice. ASPS-1 was utilized, in-vitro, to evaluate a panel of PCSK1 siRNA's, the most potent of these produced a 75% reduction in the PCSK1 RNA transcript, reduced expression of PCSK1 protein and produced a 50% reduction in ASPS-1 growth. As part of an effort to develop new therapeutic approaches toward the treatment of ASPS we have implemented a high-throughput screening effort to identify small molecule inhibitors of PCSK1. Utilizing recombinant PCSK1 and the fluorescent substrate (Pyr-Arg-Thr-Lys-Arg-MCA) a high-throughput screen of a small molecule library (∼15 K compounds) was initiated. Results of a pilot screen of ∼2400 compounds at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 100 uM yielded several inhibitors of PCSK1 which were retested in a 20 concentration assay to confirm activity. Preliminary analysis of structure-activity relationships identified several active inhibitor chemotypes, comparable in potency to the known peptide PCSK1 inhibitor, Ac-Leu-Leu-Arg-Val-Lys-Arg-NH2, containing aryl groups linked by aliphatic chains containing peptide bonds. Such compounds may act as substrate mimetic inhibitors and will be further evaluated for inhibition of growth of ASPS-1. Citation Format: {Authors}. {Abstract title} [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 102nd Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2011 Apr 2-6; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2011;71(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 1621. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2011-1621

Molecular cloning, ontogeny and tissue distribution of zebrafish (Danio rerio) prohormone convertases: pcsk1 and pcsk2

Prohormone convertase subtilisin/kexin (PCSK) enzymes are a family of nine related serine proteases, found in a multitude of tissues, and responsible for the maturation of a variety of protein and peptide precursors. Pcsk1 and Pcsk2 are found within dense core secretory granules in endocrine and neuroendocrine cells and are responsible for cleaving several hormones and neuropeptide precursors. In this work, we cloned and sequenced the cDNA of pcsk1 and pcsk2 from zebrafish (Danio rerio). pcsk1 is a 2268bp ORF, whose 755 amino acid protein product is identical to that predicted from the genome sequence. pcsk2 is a 1941bp ORF, encoding a 646 amino acid peptide. Both Pcsk1 and Pcsk2 display high degrees of similarity to their counterparts in other species, including the conservation of the catalytic triad and other essential residues. The brain contained the highest expression levels of both pcsk1 (1.49±0.21) (displayed as ratio to EF-1a), and pcsk2 (0.23±0.04). Both transcripts were also detectable in the fore, mid and distal gut. pcsk1 and 2 were detectable at 4.5h post-fertilization, and while pcsk1 expression increased throughout development (0.12±0.01 maximum at 3days post-fertilization), pcsk2 expression was highest at day 5 post-fertilization (0.03±0.01), and decreased prior. For the first time, we have identified and characterized a pcsk1 transcript in fish. We have also identified and characterized the pcsk2 transcript in zebrafish, and have assessed the tissue distribution and ontogeny of both.

Expression of PCSK1 (PC1/3), PCSK2 (PC2) and PCSK3 (furin) in mouse small intestine

The family of serine proteases known as the proprotein convertases subtilisin/kexin type (PCSK) is responsible for the cleavage and maturation of many precursor hormones. Over its three successive regions, the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum, the small intestine (SI) expresses over 40 peptide hormones necessary for normal intestinal physiology. Most of these hormones derive from proteolytic cleavage of their cognate inactive polypeptide precursors. Members of the PCSK family of proteases have been implicated in this process, although details of enzyme–substrate interactions are largely lacking. As a first step towards elucidating these interactions, we have analyzed by immunohistochemistry the regional distribution of PCSK1, PCSK2 and PCSK3 in mouse SI as well as their cellular co-localization with substance P (SP), cholecystokinin (CCK), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and somatostatin (SS), 4 peptide hormones known to result from PCSK-mediated processing. Results indicate that PCSK1 is found in all three regions of the SI while PCSK2 and PCSK3 are primarily expressed in the upper two, the duodenum and the jejunum. In these proximal regions, PCSK1 was detectable in 100% of SP-positive (+) cells, 85% of CCK+ cells and 50% of GIP+ cells; PCSK2 was detectable in 40% of SS+ cells and 35% of SP+ cells; PCSK3 was detectable in 75% of GIP+ cells and 60% of SP+ cells. These histological data suggest that the 3 PCSKs may play differential and overlapping roles in prohormone processing in the three regions of the SI.